In
te
r
n
ation
a
l Jou
rn
al
o
f Po
we
r
Elec
tron
ic
s an
d
D
r
ive S
y
stem
(IJ
PED
S
)
Vol.
10, No.
1, Mar
ch 2019,
pp.
1
~9
IS
S
N
: 2088-
86
94,
D
O
I
:
10.11
5
9
1
/ij
ped
s
.
v10
.
i
1.pp
1-9
1
Jou
rn
a
l
h
o
me
pa
ge
:
ht
tp:
//i
a
e
score
.
com
/
j
o
u
r
na
l
s
/
i
n
d
e
x
.
p
hp/IJ
PED
S
Electric
vehicle techno
logy impacts on energy
Wael A. S
al
ah
1
,
B
a
sim
Alsayid
2
, Mahmo
u
d
A
. M. Albreem
3
,
B
a
s
e
m
Ab
u
Zn
e
i
d
4
,
Mu
t
a
s
e
m
A
l
k
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asaw
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h
5
,
A
n
w
a
r
Al
M
o
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h
6
,
An
ees Abu
Sne
i
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eh
7
,
A
m
ir
A
bu
A
l
A
i
sh
8
1,
2
,
7
D
e
p
a
rtm
e
n
t
of
El
ectrical En
g
ineeri
n
g
, Colleg
e
of E
n
g
i
neeri
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g
an
d Te
c
h
n
o
lo
gy
,
P
a
les
t
i
n
e T
echn
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cal
U
ni
versit
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ie (P
T
UK), P
alest
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n
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3
D
e
part
men
t
o
f E
l
ectro
n
i
cs an
d
Co
m
mu
n
i
cati
on En
gin
eerin
g
, Coll
e
g
e of
En
g
i
n
eerin
g,
A'
Sh
arqi
yah
Univ
er
sity
(
AS
U
)
,
O
m
a
n
4
F
acu
lt
y
of
E
l
ectrical
a
nd
C
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
En
g
i
neerin
g,
U
ni
versit
y
Of
B
us
in
ess
and Techn
o
l
o
g
y
CE
i
T
Dh
aban
-Nort
h
Jedd
a
h, S
au
di
Arab
i
a
5
F
acu
lty
of In
f
o
rmatio
n T
echn
o
logy
, S
oftware En
g
i
n
eering
Dep
a
rtm
en
t,
A
jl
ou
n
N
a
ti
ona
l
Univ
ersi
ty,
J
o
r
dan
6
F
acu
lt
y of En
g
ineerin
g
Techn
o
lo
gy, Al-Balqa’
A
pplied Univers
i
t
y
,
Jordan
8
Co
m
m
u
n
i
cati
on
En
g
i
n
eerin
g
D
e
part
men
t
,
F
aculty
o
f E
ngi
neeri
ng,
A
l-
H
u
s
s
e
in
B
in
T
a
l
a
l
U
n
i
ve
r
s
it
y
,
J
or
d
a
n
Art
i
cl
e In
fo
ABSTRACT
A
r
tic
le hist
o
r
y
:
R
e
ce
i
v
e
d
Mar
24,
2
0
1
8
Re
vise
d S
e
p 13,
201
8
A
c
c
e
pte
d
S
ep 30,
2
0
1
8
The
CO
2
e
m
i
s
s
io
n
le
v
e
l
is
b
e
c
o
mi
n
g
a
s
e
r
i
o
us
i
ss
ue
w
o
r
l
d
w
i
d
e
.
T
h
e
con
t
i
nuo
us
i
ncrease i
n
gaso
l
i
n
e p
r
ice f
o
rms
t
h
e es
sen
tial b
a
se
o
f
d
ev
elo
p
m
e
n
t
of
e
l
e
c
t
ric
v
e
hicle
(EV
)
d
riv
e
s
.
M
o
r
eover,
eco
no
m
i
c
and
envi
ron
me
n
t
a
l
is
su
es
r
el
ate
to
f
abri
catio
n
and
o
p
erati
on
o
f
t
radi
ti
on
al
p
ow
er
ed
v
ehi
c
les.
T
h
e
bas
i
c
co
ns
id
e
r
atio
ns
a
nd
d
ev
elo
p
m
e
nt
p
e
r
s
p
ectives
o
f
EV
s
are
p
r
esen
ted
in
th
is
p
aper.
Th
e
d
e
v
e
lo
pm
ent
of
a
n
eff
i
c
i
ently
d
esi
g
n
e
d
mo
tor
an
d
driv
e
sat
i
sf
y
t
h
e
need
o
f
efficien
t
characteri
s
tics
th
at
e
nabl
e
E
Vs
t
o
perfor
m
a
s
part
o
f
t
h
e
p
r
o
p
u
l
s
i
o
n
u
n
i
t
.
T
h
e
u
s
e
o
f
d
i
g
i
t
a
l
s
i
g
n
a
l
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
l
e
r
s
c
ompared
wi
th
con
v
en
tio
nal
co
ntro
l
sys
t
ems
m
i
n
i
mi
zes
t
he
m
ot
or’s
t
o
t
a
l
h
armo
n
ic
di
s
t
ortion,
l
ow
ers
o
p
erati
n
g
te
mp
eratures
,
an
d
p
r
odu
ces
h
ig
h
ef
fi
ciency
a
nd
po
wer
f
act
or
r
atin
gs
.
Th
is
p
aper
a
d
d
ress
es the vi
e
w
o
f
E
V
tech
n
ol
og
y
a
s
w
e
ll
its a
dv
a
n
ta
ge
s o
v
e
r oth
e
r
te
c
h
no
lo
gie
s
.
K
eyw
ord
s
:
C
l
ea
n
en
e
r
gy
Elec
tric
ve
h
ic
l
e
Em
i
ssion
En
viro
nme
n
t
Inver
t
e
r
Mo
tor
con
t
ro
l
Susta
i
na
b
l
e
en
er
gy
Co
pyri
gh
t © 2
019 In
stit
u
t
e
of Advanced
En
gi
neeri
n
g
an
d
S
c
ien
ce.
All
rights
res
e
rv
ed.
Corres
pon
d
i
n
g
Au
th
or:
Wa
el
A
.
S
a
lah,
D
e
pa
rtme
nt
o
f
El
e
c
t
rica
l
Eng
i
ne
eri
ng,
C
ol
le
ge
of
En
g
i
ne
er
in
g a
n
d Tec
h
n
o
lo
gy,
P
a
l
e
stine
Tec
h
ni
c
a
l
U
ni
ver
s
it
y–K
a
d
o
o
rie
(PTU
K)
,
P.O.
B
o
x
:
7
,
Y
af
a St
ree
t
, Tu
l
k
a
r
m,
Pal
est
i
ne
.
Em
ail:
w
aelsal
a
h.dr@gm
a
i
l
.c
om,
w
a
el.sala
h
@
p
t
uk.
ed
u.ps
1.
I
N
TR
OD
U
C
TI
O
N
El
ect
ri
c
v
e
h
i
c
l
e
(EV)
d
ri
v
e
s,
w
h
i
c
h
a
re
g
enera
l
ly
s
u
b
j
ect
ed
t
o
fr
eq
uen
t
s
tart
a
nd
s
to
p
d
e
ma
nds,
ar
e
u
s
ed
i
n
di
ff
ere
n
t
cli
m
at
e
s
,
ro
ad
c
on
di
ti
on
s,
a
n
d
t
e
rrai
n
s
.
E
V
d
r
i
ve
s
u
s
e
d
m
ainl
y
in
i
n
d
u
stria
l
p
ro
d
u
ct
i
o
n
l
i
ne
s
are
ofte
n
o
p
e
r
ate
d
a
t
co
nsta
n
t
s
pee
d
s
an
d
i
n
c
o
n
tro
l
le
d
e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
s.
I
n
an
y
EV
p
rop
u
l
s
io
n
un
i
t
,
the
motor
dri
v
e
i
s
t
he
m
os
t
im
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
part.
The
drive
sys
t
e
m
m
a
i
n
l
y
co
ns
i
s
t
s
of
a
n
e
l
e
c
tric
m
ot
or,
a
pow
er
c
o
nver
t
er
,
and
an
e
lectr
o
nic
co
n
t
ro
ller.
T
he
m
o
t
or
d
r
i
ve
s
h
o
u
l
d
be
d
es
ig
ne
d
t
o
s
at
isfy
s
e
v
era
l
c
h
a
ra
ct
eri
s
ti
c
s
,
su
ch
a
s
hi
gh
t
o
r
que
c
a
p
ab
i
lit
y,
h
igh
eff
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
,
reg
e
nera
tive
bra
k
i
ng,
an
d
goo
d
th
e
r
mal
a
n
d
c
o
o
lin
g
sy
st
ems,
w
h
i
ch
ena
b
le
it
t
o
p
e
rform
e
ff
i
c
ie
n
t
l
y
a
s
part
o
f
t
h
e
pr
opu
ls
io
n
uni
t
.
E
l
e
c
t
ric
a
n
d
h
y
b
r
i
d
ve
hi
c
l
e
s
a
re
i
mp
orta
nt
fa
ct
ors
for
the
im
provem
e
n
t
o
f
a
hea
l
t
h
y
e
n
v
i
r
o
nme
n
t
o
w
in
g
t
o
t
hei
r
b
en
efi
c
i
a
l
e
f
f
ect
o
n
t
h
e
en
vi
r
o
n
m
en
t
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
l
o
w
C
O
2
e
m
i
ssion
le
ve
l.
W
it
h
t
h
e
ste
a
d
i
l
y
i
nc
r
e
a
s
ing
oi
l
pric
e
s
,
the
n
eed
for
alt
e
rnative
energy
source
i
s grow
i
ng.
Elec
t
r
i
c
a
nd
elec
tric h
y
b
r
i
d ve
hic
l
es of
f
e
r
the bes
t
p
oss
i
bi
l
ity for the
u
se of new
al
t
e
r
n
at
i
v
e
e
n
ergy
so
u
r
ce
s.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
S
N: 2
0
8
8
-
86
94
I
nt
J
P
ow
E
l
e
c
&
Dr
i
S
y
st,
Vol.
10,
N
o.
1
,
Mar
c
h
2
0
1
9
:
1
–
9
2
El
e
c
tr
i
c
d
r
i
ve
r
efe
r
s
to
t
he
c
o
nver
s
ion
of
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lectr
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cal
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o
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h
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ic
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l
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y
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n
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u
t
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n
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v
a
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r
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el
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e
s
t
h
at
can
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es
po
nd
t
o
vari
able
spee
d
an
d
t
o
r
q
ue
t
o
m
a
tc
h
t
h
e
me
chanic
a
l
l
oa
d
[1]
.
T
he
v
a
r
iab
l
e
s
p
e
e
d
d
r
i
v
e
(
V
S
D
)
i
s
n
o
w
p
o
p
u
l
a
r
e
v
e
n
i
n
i
ndu
st
r
i
al
a
nd
h
o
m
e
ap
pli
a
nce
s
[
2
]
.
T
h
e
ma
r
k
e
t
o
f
m
o
t
i
o
n
c
o
n
t
r
o
ls
p
r
odu
cts
sh
ow
s
a
viable
g
r
o
w
t
h.
M
ot
i
o
n
c
o
ntr
o
l
mar
k
et
g
r
o
w
t
h
is
ill
us
t
r
ated
i
n
the
his
t
ogr
am
i
n
F
i
gur
e
1
.
Thi
s
g
r
o
w
t
h
r
e
flec
t
s
t
hat
t
h
e
de
mand
for
D
C
c
o
mm
u
t
ator mot
or
d
ri
ve sales dec
r
e
ases in
c
ontrast to
t
h
e si
gni
f
i
cant annual incr
e
a
se in
AC
m
otor d
r
i
ves [3]
.
F
i
gur
e
1
.
Mot
i
on contr
o
l
market gr
o
w
t
h
[3]
O
w
i
ng
t
o
t
h
e
r
a
pid
tec
hno
l
o
g
i
ca
l
a
d
v
a
nc
em
ent
in
pow
e
r
e
le
ctr
o
n
i
c
con
v
er
t
e
rs,
AC
m
o
t
ors
ar
e
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
ngl
y
be
co
mi
ng
a
t
t
r
act
iv
e
solu
t
i
on
s
fo
r
v
a
ri
abl
e
s
p
eed
a
p
p
l
i
ca
ti
o
n
s
and
ha
ve
r
ec
o
r
ded
stea
d
y
g
r
o
w
t
h
si
nce
1
9
90.
F
igur
e
2
sh
ow
s
a
m
a
jor
shif
t
f
r
o
m
t
r
a
di
t
i
ona
l
va
r
i
a
ble-
s
p
ee
d
D
C
b
r
u
s
h
ed
m
ot
or
s,
w
hi
c
h
h
a
v
e
be
en
u
se
d
f
o
r
dec
a
des
[4]
-
[
6]
.
F
i
gur
e
2.
A
C
ve
r
s
us
D
C
e
l
ect
ric
drive
ma
rket
[
1]
Elec
tric
a
l
m
achi
n
es
a
re
k
ey
e
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
i
n
m
a
ny
in
d
u
stria
l
p
roce
s
se
s.
T
he
y
w
o
r
k
e
i
t
her
un
de
r
c
o
n
s
ta
nt
o
r
va
r
i
a
b
le
s
pee
d
t
o
ma
tch
the
u
n
k
n
o
w
n
l
oa
d
to
r
que
o
pe
r
a
t
i
o
n
.
A
f
ee
dbac
k
c
on
tr
o
l
l
o
op
m
u
s
t
b
e
im
pl
e
m
e
n
te
d
thr
o
ugh
a
V
S
D
.
I
nfor
m
a
ti
o
n
o
n
t
h
e
a
c
t
u
al
e
lec
t
r
i
ca
l
a
nd
m
echa
n
i
c
al
oper
a
ti
ng
c
o
nd
i
tio
ns
e
xper
i
enc
e
d
b
y
the
m
o
tor
is
p
r
o
vide
d
a
n
d
s
e
nse
d
by
var
i
a
b
le
a
pp
ro
pria
te
s
e
n
s
o
rs.
The
n
,
a
c
o
n
t
ro
l
a
l
go
rithm
pr
o
c
esses
t
h
is
i
n
f
or
m
a
t
i
o
n
a
nd
c
o
m
p
ar
e
s
i
t
w
i
t
h
t
he
d
em
ande
d
r
e
f
e
r
e
nce
spee
d/
t
o
r
q
ue.
Based
on
t
h
is
c
o
mpa
r
ison,
th
e
su
p
p
lie
d
v
o
l
t
a
g
e or
c
ur
r
e
nt
t
o
t
h
e mo
t
o
r
w
i
nd
in
gs
i
s
con
t
ro
ll
e
d
t
h
r
oug
h
t
h
e
po
wer
el
ectro
ni
c
s
sw
itc
hes
as
s
h
o
w
n
i
n
F
i
gur
e
3.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int J
P
o
w
El
e
c
&
D
ri S
yst
I
S
S
N
:
2088-
86
94
Elec
tri
c
vehic
l
e
tec
h
n
o
l
o
g
y
i
m
pac
ts
o
n
e
n
er
gy (
W
ael A
.
Sa
la
h)
3
F
i
gure
3. G
ener
al sche
m
e
of
V
SD
Th
e
hi
gh
m
ai
nt
en
a
n
c
e
r
eq
ui
r
e
me
n
t
o
f
th
e
DC
m
oto
r
i
s
a
pe
rsi
s
t
e
n
t
pro
b
le
m
w
ith
t
he
D
C
dri
v
es.
T
h
e
A
C
V
S
D
s
hav
e
b
e
c
o
m
e
p
op
ular
a
nd
h
a
v
e
ra
pidl
y
grow
n
sinc
e
t
h
e
19
80s.
Th
i
s
g
ro
w
t
h
i
s
m
ai
nl
y
a
res
u
l
t
o
f
a
d
v
a
n
c
e
s
i
n
po
wer
el
e
c
t
r
on
ic
s
w
i
t
c
h
e
s
and
di
git
a
l
c
ont
ro
l
t
e
chn
o
l
og
i
e
s
t
h
a
t
h
i
ghl
y
af
f
ect
e
d
t
h
e
c
o
s
t
and
perform
ance
o
f
diff
erent
VSD
sys
t
e
m
s.
T
he
m
ain
pe
rform
anc
e
p
ara
meter
of
p
u
l
l
i
n
g
t
he
m
ove
me
n
t
t
ow
ar
d
A
C
V
S
D
s
is
t
he
r
u
g
g
ed
r
el
i
a
bi
lit
y
an
d
l
o
w
cos
t
o
f
A
C
m
otors
c
o
m
p
a
red
w
i
th
t
he
t
rad
i
t
i
o
na
lly
u
sed
D
C
brus
hed
m
o
tor.
T
he
m
echa
n
i
c
al
c
om
muta
t
i
o
n
s
ys
tem
i
n
t
he
D
C
brus
hed
m
o
t
o
r
is
t
he
m
a
j
or
s
ou
rc
e
o
f
ine
f
fic
i
e
n
cy
o
f
DC
d
ri
ves.
I
t
has
bee
n
r
ep
la
ced
b
y
a
p
o
we
r
e
l
ec
tro
n
ic
c
o
nver
t
er
c
ircu
it
ca
l
l
e
d
t
he
i
nve
rter
t
o
val
i
d
at
e
the
A
C
V
SD
s
ys
t
e
m.
N
eve
r
thele
ss,
t
he
u
ses
o
f
p
ower
e
le
ct
ron
i
cs
d
e
v
i
c
es
r
e
q
ui
re
a
s
ensi
ti
v
e
a
n
d
efficie
n
t
d
i
gi
ta
l
co
n
t
rol,
w
hic
h
i
s
the
m
a
in
d
iffi
c
u
l
t
y
i
n
t
he
A
C
V
S
D
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
.
T
h
i
s
t
y
p
e
o
f
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
com
p
l
i
c
a
t
es t
h
e
s
yst
e
m
and i
n
c
r
ea
se
s the
co
st i
n ac
hie
v
in
g
a
re
liab
l
e
inve
r
t
er
c
irc
u
it.
F
o
r
any
ne
w
tec
h
n
o
lo
gy
pr
op
ose
d
,
t
h
e
e
n
erg
y
e
ff
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
co
u
l
d
a
t
trac
t
new
c
u
st
o
m
e
r
s
a
nd
he
lp
c
o
mmerc
i
al
i
ze
i
t
a
m
ong
pub
li
c
use
r
s
[
7
].
T
h
e
w
id
e
p
r
esen
c
e
o
f
p
ow
er
e
lectr
o
n
i
cs
c
o
n
v
erter
(P
EC
)
sys
t
e
m
s
has
r
ece
n
t
l
y
c
ause
d
t
h
e
e
n
er
g
y
s
av
i
ngs
t
o
pay
ba
ck
f
or
t
he
a
d
d
i
t
i
on
a
l
e
xp
en
s
e
s
i
m
p
l
i
e
d
by
V
S
D
implem
e
n
ta
t
i
o
n
.
Ene
r
g
y
c
os
ts,
i
n
te
rest
r
ate
s
,
and
in
flat
i
on
r
i
s
e
sl
ow
l
y
e
ver
y
y
ear
,
bu
t
t
h
is
i
n
c
rea
s
in
g
c
o
st
cou
l
d
b
e
f
ore
s
ta
ll
e
d
t
o
som
e
e
xt
e
n
t
by
e
n
e
r
gy
sa
vi
ng
thro
ug
h
P
E
C.
G
iv
e
n
t
ha
t
the
l
i
fe
s
pa
n
o
f
P
EC
d
ri
ves
range
s fr
om 1
0
to 1
5 year
s, th
e
princ
i
p
al in
v
e
stm
e
n
t
i
n i
n
st
all
ing
the P
E
C
pay
s
of
f
w
ell d
u
ri
ng t
h
is cyc
le
. The
ene
r
g
y
savi
n
gs
prod
u
c
e
d b
y
t
he
P
EC
i
n
V
S
D
s
f
or
t
he P
EC
a
nd
moto
r
i
m
p
r
ove
ene
rg
y ut
i
l
iz
a
t
ion
[8].
Re
ga
rdle
ss
of
t
he
t
y
p
e
s
o
f
m
o
t
o
r
t
h
a
t
t
he
e
lec
t
r
i
c
a
l
dri
v
es
a
re
d
r
i
vi
ng,
t
he
p
ro
gram
m
a
ble
mic
r
oco
n
tro
l
le
rs
i
nside
t
h
e
drive
c
o
n
t
ro
l
l
er
e
nab
l
e
i
n
te
lli
g
e
nt
c
ontro
ls
o
v
e
r
stator
a
n
d
r
ot
or
f
l
u
x
an
gle
s
,
t
o
ta
l
harm
on
ic
d
ist
o
rt
io
n
(TH
D
)
a
nd
p
ow
er
f
ac
t
o
r
c
o
rrec
tio
n
for
op
t
i
m
a
l
e
ffic
ie
nc
y,
a
nd
h
ig
h-
p
i
tc
he
d
n
o
i
s
es
assoc
i
ate
d
w
i
t
h
conve
n
t
i
o
na
l P
W
M c
o
nt
r
o
l
l
er
s
[9].
In
c
on
si
d
e
rat
i
o
n
t
h
at
t
h
e
e
l
ectri
c
mo
t
o
r
is
t
he
h
ea
rt
o
f
el
e
c
t
r
ic
v
e
h
i
c
le
s
(
E
V
s
),
t
he
r
ec
en
t
ad
vanc
e
s
i
n
elec
tr
ical
m
ach
ine
s
a
nd
t
h
e
i
r
con
t
ro
l
grea
tl
y
affec
t
t
he
d
ev
elo
p
m
e
n
t
of
E
Vs,
p
a
rt
i
c
ul
a
r
ly
t
h
e
d
ev
el
opme
n
t
of
AC
d
riv
e
s
an
d
t
h
e
p
r
od
u
c
ti
on
o
f
hi
g
h
ly
e
ffi
c
i
e
n
t
AC
m
ot
o
r
s.
D
i
f
fer
e
n
t
t
y
p
es
o
f
e
l
ec
t
r
i
c
m
ot
ors
ha
ve
b
e
e
n
use
d
b
y
ma
nuf
acture
r
s
t
o
i
m
p
lem
e
n
t
d
i
ffe
r
e
nt
e
l
e
c
t
ric
ve
hic
l
es
m
o
de
ls
a
s
part
o
f
the
dr
ive
sys
t
e
m
.
Ta
b
l
e
1
show
s
the differ
e
nt
m
ode
ls
o
f
EV
s
by
va
rio
u
s
m
a
nu
fa
c
t
ur
er
s
that
a
re
l
ist
e
d
al
on
g
w
i
t
h
t
h
e
t
ype of
m
o
t
o
r
used
to imp
le
me
nt
t
he
EV
[1
0].
The
tab
l
e sh
ow
s t
h
at t
he A
C m
o
t
o
r
s
ar
e pr
i
m
ar
i
l
y
use
d
in EV
imple
me
nta
tio
n. The
perm
ena
n
t
m
a
gne
t
P
M
b
rus
h
less
mo
to
rs
a
re
s
pecifically
used
o
w
i
n
g
to
t
h
e
i
r
d
yna
mic
c
h
a
r
ac
terist
i
c
s
a
n
d
l
o
w
ma
int
e
na
nce
c
o
m
p
ar
ed
w
i
t
h
o
t
he
r c
o
mm
only
use
d
A
C
motors.
Tab
l
e
1.
M
otor
s
use
d
i
n e
l
ec
tric
v
eh
ic
les
[10
]
C
o
m
p
a
ny
E
V
M
ode
l
E
V
M
otor
Fi
at
F
iat
P
a
n
d
a
E
l
e
c
t
r
a
S
e
r
i
es
d
c
mo
t
o
r
F
i
a
t
F
i
a
t
Se
i
c
e
n
to E
le
tt
ra
I
nd
u
c
tion m
o
tor
H
onda
H
onda
E
V
Plus
P
M
B
L
DC
m
ot
or
Ma
z
d
a
M
a
z
d
a
B
ongo
S
hunt
d
c
m
o
tor
N
i
ssa
n
N
issa
n Alt
r
a
PM B
L
D
C
m
o
t
o
r
To
yo
t
a
To
yo
t
a
R
A
V
4
P
M
B
L
D
C
m
o
to
r
Ge
n
e
r
a
l Motors
GM E
VI
Ind
u
c
tion m
o
tor
F
o
rd
F
ord
T
h
ink
C
ity
I
nd
u
c
tion m
o
tor
2.
P
R
O
B
L
E
M
S
T
A
T
E
M
EN
T
H
i
g
h
d
e
p
e
nde
n
c
e
on
t
h
e
o
i
l
a
s
t
he
m
ai
n
s
o
u
r
ce
o
f
e
n
erg
y
f
or
p
as
se
nger
v
e
hic
l
es
h
as
s
e
v
er
al
e
ffec
ts
bec
a
u
s
e
the
n
u
m
ber
of
a
u
t
om
ob
i
l
es
i
n
t
ro
duc
e
d
o
n
the
r
o
a
d
i
ncr
e
a
se
s
an
n
u
a
l
l
y
.
An
econ
o
m
i
c
fac
t
or
i
s
a
l
s
o
in
here
nt
i
n
th
e
p
oor
e
nerg
y
con
v
er
sio
n
e
fficie
n
c
y
o
f
c
o
mbus
tio
n
e
ng
i
n
es,
bu
t
the
u
s
e
o
f
E
V
s
i
s
st
i
l
l
ver
y
li
m
i
te
d
com
p
a
r
e
d
w
it
h
o
t
he
r
ty
pes
of
c
om
mon
l
y
use
d
a
nd
ma
nufac
t
ur
ed
v
eh
ic
le
s.
O
ne
r
ea
son
c
o
u
l
d
b
e
t
ha
t
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
c
ars
re
mai
n
m
o
r
e
e
x
pe
n
s
i
v
e
t
h
an
t
ra
d
i
ti
on
al
c
ars.
T
h
e
h
i
g
h
e
xpe
nse
m
o
st
ly
r
efe
r
s
to
t
he
i
r
e
xpen
s
i
v
e
b
a
tt
e
r
i
e
s. Fu
r
t
h
e
r
mo
re
, co
n
c
e
r
n
s
rel
at
e to
su
ffi
ci
en
c
y
of
b
a
t
t
e
ry c
harge
bef
o
re
t
r
a
vel
i
ng g
r
e
a
t dis
t
an
ce
s.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
SSN: 2088-
8694
I
nt
J
P
ow
Elec
& Dr
i
S
y
st, Vol. 10,
N
o.
1, Mar
c
h 2
0
1
9
:
1
– 9
4
F
o
r
e
x
am
pl
e
,
t
he
t
rans
por
ta
ti
on
s
ec
t
o
r
in
M
alay
sia
i
s
c
o
n
s
i
de
re
d
one
o
f
t
h
e
m
o
s
t
a
dva
n
c
ed
a
mo
n
g
deve
l
ope
d
c
o
u
n
tr
ies
in
A
s
i
a
.
T
he
f
ossi
l
f
u
el
t
y
p
es
u
se
d
in
t
he
tra
n
sp
o
r
tat
i
o
n
s
ec
tor
inc
l
ude
n
a
t
ural
g
a
s
,
avia
t
i
o
n
g
aso
l
ine
,
m
otor
g
a
s
o
l
i
n
e,
a
vi
at
i
on
t
u
rb
ine
fue
l
(
ATF
o
r
A
v
tur)
,
die
s
e
l
o
il,
a
nd
fue
l
o
i
l
.
N
a
t
u
r
a
l
gas
f
u
el
i
s
a
mi
xture
o
f
g
aseo
u
s
h
yd
ro
ca
rbon
s
(mai
n
l
y
me
th
ane)
t
h
a
t
o
cc
ur
e
it
her
in
g
as
f
ie
ld
s
or
i
n
a
ssoc
i
a
t
ion
w
ith
c
r
ude
o
i
l
i
n
o
il
f
i
e
l
ds
.
The
trans
p
o
r
tat
i
o
n
s
e
c
t
or
e
nerg
y
usa
g
e
base
d
on
fue
l
t
y
p
e
s
i
s
g
i
v
e
n
i
n
Tab
l
e
2 [1
1]
.
Ta
b
l
e
2.
Ener
gy struc
t
ure
ac
cord
in
g t
o
fue
l t
ype
s use
d
i
n t
h
e
t
r
a
nsp
o
rta
t
i
o
n
sec
t
or
o
f
M
a
l
a
ys
i
a
Ye
a
r
Fu
el
T
yp
e
(
k
t
o
e
)
Pe
trol
Di
es
el
ATF
F
u
e
l
oil
NG
El
ect
1980
1296
847
250
-
0
0
1985
2057
1032
386
-
0
0
1990
2889
1826
628
41
0
0
1995
4477
2168
1158
17
5
0
1996
5161
2417
1333
32
4
1
1997
5574
3106
1437
75
5
1
1998
5849
2311
1618
9
4
1
1999
6778
3174
1423
13
0
4
2000
6378
4103
1574
4
7
4
2001
6820
4534
1762
5
14
5.
17
2002
6940
4680
1785
5.
5
28
5.
20
2003
7120
4732
1798
5.
8
36
5.
5
2004
7531
4791
1815
6
44
6
2005
7865
4812
1830
6.
5
56
6.
2
(
S
ou
r
c
e
:
Ma
l
a
y
si
an
N
at
iona
l E
n
e
r
gy
Ba
l
a
n
ce
,
2005)
[
1
1
]
2.1.
Pl
an
n
i
n
g
issu
e
The
grow
i
ng
n
u
mbe
r
s
o
f
p
ass
e
nge
rs
a
nd
ve
h
i
c
l
e
s
i
n
a
d
d
iti
o
n
t
o
i
nc
rea
s
in
g
tri
p
d
istanc
e
s
r
e
s
ul
t
i
n
a
vi
si
b
l
e
inc
r
ea
se
i
n
t
h
e
ener
gy
u
sed
b
y
p
r
opu
ls
io
n
ve
h
i
c
l
e
s
y
s
t
e
m
s
.
P
r
ivate
veh
i
cle
po
p
u
l
a
ti
on
grow
s
an
nua
l
l
y
,
w
h
ic
h
i
n
cre
a
ses
e
n
erg
y
c
o
nsu
m
ptio
n.
W
i
t
h
fossil
fue
l
a
s
t
h
e
m
a
i
n
so
urce
,
a
i
r
po
llu
t
i
on
i
ncr
e
a
s
e
s
b
eca
u
s
e
o
f
com
b
u
s
ti
on.
T
her
e
for
e
,
a
hi
g
h
e
ff
i
c
i
e
nc
y
o
f
e
ner
gy
u
s
e
i
n
t
he
t
ra
ns
p
o
r
t
s
ec
to
r
sh
o
u
l
d
b
e
pl
a
nne
d
to
m
i
n
im
i
z
e
air p
o
l
l
u
t
i
on a
n
d a
d
dre
s
s e
n
v
i
ronm
en
ta
l
c
o
n
c
erns.
Im
plem
ent
i
ng
en
erg
y
e
ff
i
c
i
e
n
t
E
V
sy
ste
m
s
ca
n
h
e
l
p
r
ed
u
c
e
the
da
i
l
y
incre
a
se
i
n
pe
tro
l
e
u
m
oils
u
se
d
i
n
t
he
p
r
opu
lsi
o
n
sys
tem
.
A
s
a
r
e
su
l
t
,
it
c
an
c
u
r
b
ris
i
ng
a
i
r
po
llu
ti
o
n
,
espec
i
al
ly
C
O
2
e
m
i
ssi
ons
i
n
w
h
ic
h
tw
o-th
i
r
d
s
o
r
i
g
i
na
t
e
f
r
o
m
t
r
ans
port
fue
l
c
o
mbu
s
t
i
on
[
1
2
]
,[
13
].
T
he
f
in
a
l
con
s
um
pt
io
n f
o
r
pe
t
r
ole
u
m
as show
n
in
F
ig
ure
4.
F
i
g
u
r
e
4.
F
in
a
l
con
sum
p
tio
n f
o
r pe
tro
l
e
u
m
p
r
od
uct (
N
ati
o
n
a
l Ene
rg
y Ba
la
nc
e 20
0
3
)
[12]
2.2.
Fin
a
n
c
i
a
l
issu
e
G
a
soli
ne
r
e
f
i
n
ed
f
rom
c
r
ude oi
l
is
prim
ari
l
y
use
d
t
o
su
p
p
l
y
t
he
a
u
t
om
ob
il
es
a
nd lig
h
t
t
ru
c
k
s
w
i
th
t
h
e
requ
ire
d
f
uel
t
o
p
ow
e
r
t
he
ir
c
ombu
st
ion
e
n
gine
s
[1
1].
The
a
l
m
o
s
t
c
o
n
t
inu
o
u
s
i
n
cre
a
se
i
n
t
h
e
cos
t
o
f
the
gas
o
l
i
ne
i
s
c
o
n
cer
ning.
T
h
i
s issue
c
o
u
l
d
be
a
ddresse
d
b
y
d
e
v
e
l
o
pm
ent
a
n
d
i
m
plem
en
ta
t
i
o
n
o
f
an EV.
T
he
E
V
cou
l
d
be
c
harg
e
d
a
t
h
o
me
a
t
ni
ght
d
uri
n
g
n
on-
pe
ak
h
o
u
rs
b
ec
a
u
se
e
l
e
c
t
ri
ci
ty
i
s
ch
eap
er
a
t
n
i
gh
t
.
G
aso
lin
e
p
r
i
c
es
f
l
u
ctu
a
te
e
v
e
n
wh
en
c
ru
d
e
o
i
l
p
ri
c
e
s
a
r
e
st
ab
l
e
,
t
h
ereb
y
c
a
u
si
ng
t
ro
ubl
e
a
n
d
h
e
a
d
a
c
h
e
fo
r
c
u
sto
m
ers.
Fa
ctors
tha
t
c
a
u
se
t
he
p
ric
e
f
luc
t
uat
i
o
n
nor
m
a
lly
s
tem
fro
m
the
s
ea
sona
lit
y
l
o
ca
l
re
ta
i
l
s
ta
t
i
on
c
o
m
p
e
t
i
t
i
o
n
and
the
cr
ude o
il s
u
p
p
l
y d
i
sru
p
t
i
on
s [1
4].
F
uel
O
i
l
7.
7%
LP
G
7.
5%
K
e
r
o
s
ene
0.
4%
A
TF
&
A
V
G
a
s
8.
6%
N
on
E
ner
gy
3.
1%
M
o
to
r
P
e
tr
o
l
33.
7%
D
i
es
el
39
.
0
%
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int J
P
o
w
El
e
c
&
D
ri S
yst
I
S
S
N
:
2088-
86
94
Elec
tri
c
vehic
l
e
tec
h
n
o
l
o
g
y
i
m
pac
ts
o
n
e
n
er
gy (
W
ael A
.
Sa
la
h)
5
2.3.
E
n
v
i
ronm
ent
a
l
i
s
su
e
I
n
a
dd
i
tio
n
to
C
O
2
e
m
i
ssi
o
ns
,
the
trad
i
tio
na
l
l
y
powe
r
ed
g
a
s
o
l
i
n
e
ve
h
i
c
l
e
u
s
a
g
e
r
e
sults
i
n
o
t
her
gas
em
issi
on
s
th
a
t
can
h
i
g
h
l
y
a
f
fe
ct
t
he
l
oca
l
a
ir
q
ua
l
i
t
y
.
T
h
re
e
g
as
es
c
ov
ered
by
t
h
e
Euro
s
t
a
nd
a
r
d
s
i
n
c
lud
e
c
a
r
b
o
n
m
o
n
o
x
i
d
e
(
C
O
)
,
h
y
d
r
o
c
a
r
b
o
n
(
H
C
)
,
a
n
d
n
i
t
r
o
g
e
n
o
x
i
d
e
s
(
N
O
x).
A
b
a
la
nce
d
polic
y
t
h
at
c
o
u
l
d
re
flect
the
e
ffe
c
t
s
of
bot
h
l
o
c
a
l
a
ir
qua
l
ity
c
han
g
e
and
gl
o
b
al
c
l
i
m
a
te
c
h
a
ng
e
i
s
n
eed
ed
g
iv
en
t
h
e
b
e
n
ef
it
s
a
n
d
di
sa
d
v
a
n
ta
ges
of f
uel
s
[1
5
].
The
bas
ic
t
rans
p
o
rta
t
i
o
n CO
2
sourc
e
s a
s
show
n in
F
ig
ure
5.
F
i
g
u
r
e
5.
T
ra
nspor
t
a
ti
on CO
2
s
ource
s
Th
e
li
g
h
t
-
du
ty
v
eh
i
c
l
e
C
O
2
em
i
ssi
on
s
are
a
ffe
c
t
ed
by
ve
hic
l
e
use
in
t
e
r
m
s
o
f
t
h
e
ve
hic
l
e
m
ile
s
trave
l
e
d
(
V
M
T
)
,
fuel
e
c
o
nom
y
w
h
ic
h
refers
t
o
the
mile
s
p
e
r
ga
l
l
on,
a
nd
t
he
n
e
t
g
re
en
h
ous
e
ga
s
e
m
is
sions
[
1
6
]
.
Th
e
fu
el
e
co
no
my
i
s
a
f
fe
ct
ed
b
y
th
e
ch
ara
c
t
e
ri
st
i
c
s
,
o
p
e
r
a
tin
g
c
o
nd
i
t
i
o
n
s
,
and
p
r
a
c
tice
s
o
f
t
h
e
v
e
h
i
c
l
e
.
V
M
T
grow
th
a
ffec
ts
t
he
m
oun
t
i
n
g
e
m
i
ssi
o
n
s
or
ig
i
n
at
ing
from
the
l
i
gh
t-du
t
y
v
e
h
ic
l
e
[
16].
F
i
gure
6
s
how
s
a
st
a
t
i
s
t
i
ca
l
gr
ap
h
of
t
he
a
m
o
u
n
t
of
C
O
2
e
missi
ons
f
rom
th
e
tra
n
spor
t
sec
t
or
i
n
A
s
ia
,
w
h
ic
h
clea
r
l
y
ill
us
t
r
ates
the gr
a
dua
l
l
y i
n
cre
a
si
ng em
is
sion
l
e
ve
l.
F
i
gu
r
e
6
. T
r
en
d
o
f
t
ra
nspo
rt
sec
t
o
r CO
2
e
m
i
ssi
ons i
n A
s
ia
(
IEA
,
2007)
[
1
7
]
2.4.
Hea
l
th
i
ssu
e
A
i
r
poll
u
tio
n
h
a
s
a
vis
i
ble
eff
ect
o
n
h
u
m
a
n
he
al
th
a
n
d
e
n
v
i
ro
nm
ent
ow
i
n
g
to
h
arm
f
u
l
c
om
po
ne
nt
s.
A
i
r
po
llu
t
i
on
c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
s
i
nc
lu
de
C
O
,
s
u
l
fu
r
diox
i
d
e
(S
O
x
),
N
O
x
,
H
C
,
a
n
d
C
O
2
.
C
O
r
e
d
u
c
e
s
t
h
e
b
l
o
o
d
’
s
ca
pab
i
lit
y
to
c
a
rry
o
x
yge
n,
a
ggr
a
v
ates
l
un
g
and
h
e
art
d
i
se
a
s
e
,
a
nd
ca
use
s
h
ea
d
ache
s
,
fa
t
i
g
u
e,
a
nd
diz
z
ine
ss.
Th
e
co
mbi
n
ati
o
n
of
S
Ox
w
it
h
wat
e
r
v
a
po
r
i
n
t
h
e
a
i
r
c
ont
ri
but
e
s
to
a
ci
d
r
a
in.
N
O
x
c
a
u
s
e
s
a
ye
llow
i
sh-
b
row
n
haz
e
a
n
d
be
c
o
me
s a poiso
no
us gas tha
t da
ma
ges lu
n
g
t
is
sue i
f
co
mbin
ed
w
i
t
h
oxy
ge
n
.
H
C c
o
ul
d
c
a
use
ca
n
c
er
and
c
o
uld
i
r
rita
t
e
m
uco
u
s
m
e
m
b
rane
s.
E
xc
e
ss
CO
2
c
a
n
c
a
u
se
m
ore
su
n
l
i
g
ht
t
o
en
ter
the
atm
o
sp
he
re,
w
h
ic
h
ca
use
s
g
lo
ba
l w
a
rm
i
ng.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
S
N: 2
0
8
8
-
86
94
I
nt
J
P
ow
E
l
e
c
&
Dr
i
S
y
st,
Vol.
10,
N
o.
1
,
Mar
c
h
2
0
1
9
:
1
–
9
6
The
ke
y
p
o
i
n
t
t
o
b
e
a
d
dr
ess
e
d
i
s
t
ha
t
c
a
r
sa
l
e
s
hav
e
a
l
m
ost
do
u
ble
d
i
n
t
h
e
past
2
5
yea
r
s.
T
h
i
s
phe
nom
eno
n
h
as
c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
a
bl
y
i
n
c
r
ea
se
d
th
e
de
ma
n
d
f
or
c
o
n
si
der
i
n
g
an
a
lt
e
r
n
a
t
i
v
e
s
ol
u
tio
n
to
l
i
m
i
t
a
n
d/o
r
m
i
ni
m
i
ze
t
he
e
m
i
ssi
on
s
fr
o
m
t
he
se
v
e
h
i
c
les
[
18]
.
3.
EV D
E
V
ELOPMENT EFFECT
S
3.
1.
S
ave
m
on
e
y
F
u
e
l
p
r
i
c
e
s
c
o
n
t
i
nue
t
o
cl
imb
w
i
th
t
he
i
ncr
e
ase
in
t
ar
i
f
f
r
a
te
s
o
f
e
l
ec
t
r
i
c
pow
er
.
Thus,
the
c
h
a
lle
n
g
e
f
o
r
sa
vin
g
e
ne
r
gy
ha
s bee
n
a
r
i
si
ng
a
n
d
h
i
gh
l
y
c
o
n
cer
n
i
ng
a
t
a
g
lo
ba
l
le
vel
alo
n
g
w
i
t
h
t
he
i
ncre
ase i
n
c
ar
s
ale
s
a
s
s
how
n
in
F
i
gur
e
7.
H
ow
ev
e
r
,
e
l
ectr
i
c
i
t
y
r
e
m
a
i
ns
m
uc
h
c
h
ea
per
t
han
ga
so
l
i
ne
b
e
c
a
u
se
i
t
is
m
os
tly
l
o
c
a
l
l
y
ge
ner
a
t
e
d.
T
he
m
assive
i
ncr
e
a
s
es i
n
gas
o
l
i
n
e
pr
i
ce
s ar
e
u
n
a
v
o
i
d
abl
e
b
ec
au
se
i
t
s
d
e
m
a
nd i
s
qui
ckl
y
ov
e
rt
a
k
i
n
g
the
w
o
r
l
d’
s
n
o
r
m
a
l
pr
od
uc
t
i
o
n
.
N
e
ve
r
t
he
les
s
,
the
e
l
ec
t
r
i
c
i
t
y
pr
i
c
e
h
a
s
not
c
h
a
ng
e
d
s
i
gnif
i
cant
l
y
b
ec
au
se
t
h
e
el
ec
t
r
i
c
ity
i
s
lo
c
a
lly
g
en
era
t
e
d
.
It
i
s
al
so
g
en
e
r
a
t
e
d
f
rom
re
n
e
w
able
r
eso
u
r
c
e
s
(
sola
r
,
w
ind,
b
i
o
m
a
ss,
a
nd
ge
o
t
he
r
m
al)
,
w
hic
h
a
r
e
s
low
l
y
bec
o
m
i
n
g
m
u
c
h
pop
ula
r
w
it
h
the
r
e
d
u
c
t
i
o
n
of
i
ns
ta
ll
a
t
i
on
cos
t
.
F
i
gur
e
7.
G
lob
a
l
car
s
ale
s
(
1980
–
2
0
0
5
)
(
I
EA
D
ata,
200
7)
3.
2.
F
in
i
t
e
r
e
sou
r
ce
s
The
glo
b
a
l
p
e
t
r
o
leum
l
e
v
e
l
i
s
per
m
ane
n
tly
d
r
o
p
p
i
n
g
o
w
in
g
t
o
r
es
ou
r
c
e
c
onstr
a
i
nts
[
1
1]
.
The
av
a
i
l
a
bl
e
u
s
able
e
n
e
rg
y
i
s
a
f
in
it
e
re
sou
r
ce
,
an
d
en
e
r
gy
c
an
not
b
e
r
e
pea
t
e
d
ly
u
sed
i
nde
f
i
n
ite
l
y
.
D
e
spi
t
e
l
ar
ge
sup
p
l
i
e
s
of
c
oa
l,
o
i
l
,
an
d
na
tu
r
a
l
ga
s,
t
he
d
e
m
and
is
i
ncr
e
a
s
i
n
g
,
but
t
h
e
a
mo
u
n
t
o
f
n
e
w
e
n
e
rgy
suppl
i
e
s
b
e
i
ng
di
sco
v
er
ed
i
s
dec
r
ea
sing.
T
he
c
on
sump
t
i
o
n
o
f
e
ner
g
y
b
y
f
ue
l
t
y
p
e
il
lu
st
ra
t
e
d
in
F
i
g
u
r
e
8
shows
th
a
t
w
o
r
l
dw
ide
ene
r
gy
use
,
e
speci
all
y
t
he
d
em
an
d
for
oil,
c
on
t
i
n
u
ous
l
y
in
c
re
as
es.
F
i
gur
e
8.
W
or
l
d
e
ner
g
y
cons
u
m
pti
o
n
(
E
I
A
-
I
nter
nat
i
ona
l
En
er
gy
O
u
t
l
oo
k
2
0
0
0
)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
n
t
J
P
o
w
Elec
&
D
r
i
S
y
st
I
S
S
N
:
2088-
86
94
El
e
c
t
ric
v
e
hic
l
e
t
e
chn
o
l
o
g
y i
m
pac
t
s
o
n
ene
r
gy
(
W
ael A.
Sa
la
h)
7
3
.
3
.
Clea
n env
iro
n
men
t
Ener
gy
c
onse
r
vat
i
o
n
a
n
d
e
n
vir
o
nm
enta
l
pr
o
t
ec
ti
on
a
r
e
h
ig
hl
y
im
p
or
ta
nt
c
once
r
ns
w
o
r
ldw
i
de
.
Th
e
a
v
ai
la
b
ili
ty
o
f
electr
i
c
i
t
y
i
s
a
m
a
jor
co
nsi
d
er
atio
n
i
n
E
V
de
ve
l
o
pme
n
t
.
I
n
t
e
r
m
s
of
e
nv
i
r
onme
n
t
a
l
a
s
pe
cts,
t
he
EV
s
pr
od
uce
zer
o
em
issi
o
n
a
t
t
h
e
po
int
of
u
se
,
w
h
i
c
h
r
e
su
lts
i
n
s
ig
ni
f
i
ca
nt
r
e
duc
t
i
o
n
in
a
ir
pol
l
u
t
i
on
i
n
c
r
ow
ded
t
o
w
n
a
r
e
as.
A
i
r
pol
lu
tio
n
ca
use
s
m
any
ha
r
n
ess
eff
e
c
t
s
o
n
hu
m
a
ns
a
n
d
s
ur
r
o
u
n
d
i
n
g
e
n
v
i
r
onm
en
t.
The
r
ef
ore,
qua
l
i
t
y
a
ir
i
s
a
p
o
ss
ib
le
r
esu
l
t
of
g
re
en
ho
use
effec
t.
T
he
r
ule
s
a
n
d
r
e
g
u
l
a
t
i
o
ns
t
ha
t
r
e
l
a
t
e
t
o
pr
act
ice
s
t
ha
t
cou
l
d
aff
e
c
t
t
he
e
nv
ir
o
n
me
n
t
a
r
e
i
m
por
ta
n
t
t
o
en
c
o
ur
age
the
pr
om
o
tio
n
an
d
m
ovem
e
nt
o
f
EV
s.
S
o
me
c
it
i
e
s
ha
ve
i
mplem
e
nte
d
e
miss
i
o
n
-
fr
e
e
z
o
n
e
s
f
r
o
m
a
ll
s
our
c
es
t
ha
t
m
o
stly
c
om
e
f
r
om
t
r
a
ns
por
t
.
W
or
ld
c
a
r
b
o
n
e
m
i
ssi
ons
s
t
a
tis
ti
c
s
a
r
e
s
how
n
i
n
F
ig
ur
e
9.
T
he
g
r
a
ph
c
l
e
a
r
l
y
s
h
o
w
s
t
h
e
v
i
si
bl
e
i
n
cre
a
se
i
n
ca
rb
on
emissio
n
s
worldwide.
F
i
gur
e
9.
W
or
l
d
c
ar
bo
n
em
i
ssio
n
s
(
E
I
A
-I
nter
nat
i
ona
l
Ener
g
y
O
ut
l
oo
k
20
0
0
)
EV
s
bene
f
it
e
n
vir
onm
en
ta
l
pr
otec
t
i
o
n
o
w
i
ng
t
o
im
pr
o
v
em
ent
i
n
a
i
r
qua
l
i
t
y
,
r
e
duct
i
on
i
n
n
o
i
se
l
e
v
e
l
,
a
nd
ze
r
o
l
oca
l
e
xha
ust
e
m
iss
i
ons.
G
l
o
b
a
l
ly,
t
h
e
e
m
iss
i
on
fr
om
t
h
e
g
en
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
of
e
l
e
ct
ri
cit
y
f
o
r
E
Vs
i
s
o
n
ly
2%
i
n
CO
,
w
h
er
e
a
s
tha
t
i
n
g
a
so
line
-
p
o
w
e
r
e
d
ve
h
i
c
l
e
s
i
s
a
bou
t
7
6
%
i
n
C
O
2
,
56%
i
n
N
O
x,
a
nd
9%
i
n
H
C
.
EV
s
oper
a
t
e
q
uie
t
ly
a
n
d
a
lmos
t
v
i
br
at
io
n-
fr
ee,
w
he
r
e
a
s
g
aso
l
i
n
e
-p
owe
r
ed
v
eh
ic
les
a
r
e
i
n
he
ren
t
ly
n
o
i
sy
a
nd
ha
ve
s
e
n
s
i
bl
e
vi
b
r
at
i
on
[
1
9]
.
The
EV
s
p
o
w
er
e
d
by
hig
h
-
eff
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
c
o
ntr
o
l
l
e
d
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
m
o
tor
s
s
up
p
lie
d
by
al
t
e
rn
a
tiv
e
en
e
r
gy
s
ou
rces
a
re
s
o
m
e
h
o
w
c
l
e
an
,
e
ffi
c
i
ent
,
a
nd
e
n
v
i
r
o
nm
en
t
a
ll
y
f
r
i
en
d
l
y
tow
n
tr
a
n
spor
t
a
ti
on
sys
t
em
s.
M
o
reo
v
e
r,
t
h
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
nt
p
ote
n
ti
al
p
ol
l
u
ti
on
p
r
o
bl
em
s
up
p
r
es
sio
n
b
y
usin
g
the
EV
s
has
z
e
r
o
e
m
issi
o
n
s.
T
he
a
sp
e
c
ts
t
ha
t
inf
l
ue
nce
the
pat
t
er
n
a
n
d
em
issi
on
leve
l
of
e
ner
g
y
co
nsum
pt
i
on
fr
o
m
t
he
tr
a
n
spor
t
a
t
i
on
sect
or
o
f
Mal
a
ys
ia
a
r
e
p
r
e
sente
d
.
The
st
u
dy
c
o
nc
l
u
des
tha
t
t
he
t
ota
l
e
ner
g
y
dem
a
n
d
a
n
d
v
e
hi
c
u
l
a
r
e
m
i
s
sio
n
s
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
r
o
a
d
t
r
a
nsport
rep
r
e
s
ent
on
e
o
f
t
h
e
gr
e
a
tes
t
a
r
e
a
s
o
f
c
h
a
lle
nge
f
or
e
ner
g
y
e
f
f
i
cie
n
c
y
[
2
0
]
.
T
he
i
ncr
e
asi
ng
usa
g
e
of
p
e
t
r
o
l
i
s
p
r
i
m
a
r
i
l
y
f
r
om
t
he
c
o
n
s
u
mpti
o
n
i
n
the
t
r
a
n
sp
or
ta
tio
n
s
e
c
t
or
.
P
e
tr
ol
h
a
s
b
ee
n
r
ece
ntl
y
r
e
p
l
a
ced
b
y
o
t
her
fue
l
s
par
t
ia
ll
y
or
t
o
t
a
lly
i
n
ot
he
r
sect
or
s,
y
e
t
t
he
w
or
ld
e
ne
r
g
y
de
ma
nd
s
co
nt
i
nue
g
r
o
w
i
ng
w
i
t
h
t
he
p
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n.
T
he
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
o
f
new
t
e
ch
nol
o
g
ie
s
h
e
lp
s
dec
r
ea
se
f
u
e
l
c
o
n
s
um
p
t
i
o
n
i
n
t
he
t
ra
nspor
ta
t
i
o
n
s
ec
tor
,
w
hic
h
s
t
ill
a
c
c
o
u
n
t
s
fo
r
t
h
e
s
i
g
i
ni
f
i
c
a
n
t
a
m
o
unt
o
f
ai
r
p
o
l
l
ut
i
on
in c
i
ties.
4.
EV A
PPL
ICATIONS
AND
M
ARKE
T
EV
s
ar
e
use
d
f
or
p
asse
nger
s
a
n
d
pub
l
i
c
tr
a
n
spor
t
a
tio
n.
E
V
s
a
r
e
s
u
cc
e
s
sfu
lly
r
ea
li
zed
i
n
o
f
f
-
ro
ad
ve
h
i
c
l
e
s
m
ar
k
e
t
a
s
t
he
y
fu
l
f
il
l
the
a
p
p
l
ica
t
i
o
n
r
e
q
u
irem
en
ts.
T
he
se
a
pp
l
i
cati
o
ns
i
ncl
u
de
a
ir
p
o
r
t
v
e
h
icl
e
s
f
o
r
pa
sse
nger
a
n
d
gr
o
und
s
up
po
r
t
,
r
ecr
eatio
na
l
ve
h
i
c
l
es
s
uch
as
gol
f
ca
r
t
s,
p
la
nt
o
per
a
ti
on
v
e
h
i
c
les
su
ch
a
s
f
o
r
k
lif
t
s
a
n
d
l
oa
der
t
r
uc
ks
f
or
t
he
me
p
ar
k
s
,
vehic
l
es
f
or
d
isa
b
led
per
s
ons,
an
d
so
o
n.
[
2
1
]
.
E
V
s
a
r
e
c
ost
e
ffe
c
t
i
v
e
a
n
d
l
e
a
n
t
ow
a
r
d
gr
een
t
ec
hno
lo
g
i
e
s
.
I
n
a
dd
it
ion,
E
V
s
have
r
ece
ive
d
i
ncr
eas
in
g
in
ter
e
st
b
e
cau
s
e
t
he
y
co
nt
r
i
bu
t
e
t
o
gl
ob
a
l
p
o
l
l
u
t
i
on
r
e
d
u
c
t
i
on.
T
o
a
c
h
i
ev
e
t
h
e
abo
v
e
m
ent
i
o
n
e
d
ob
je
c
tive
s
,
the
fo
llowi
n
g
in
fr
astruc
t
u
re
m
atters
s
h
o
u
ld
b
e
c
ons
i
d
ere
d
:
(a
)
B
a
t
t
e
r
y
c
h
arge
rs:
i
m
pl
e
m
en
t
a
ti
on
o
f
re
sid
e
nti
a
l
and
p
ubl
ic
c
h
ar
g
i
n
g
f
a
c
i
l
i
tie
s
an
d
sta
t
i
ons
;
(
b
)
S
t
anda
r
d
i
z
a
t
i
on
of
E
V
pl
u
gs,
cor
d
s
,
a
nd
ou
tlet
s
a
nd
sa
fet
y
i
ssu
e
s;
(
c
)
S
a
les
a
nd
d
i
str
i
b
u
tio
n;
(
d)
S
e
r
vice
a
n
d
t
ec
h
n
i
c
a
l
s
up
p
o
r
t
;
and,
(
e)
S
uppl
y
o
f
p
a
r
t
s
.
H
o
w
e
ver
,
c
ost
r
e
m
a
ins
a
m
a
jor
conce
r
n,
a
nd
EV ini
tia
l
cos
t
a
n
d
b
a
t
tery
r
epla
cem
en
t c
o
s
t
m
ust
be
s
u
ppr
e
s
se
d
at
a
r
ea
so
na
b
l
e
le
ve
l.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
SSN: 2088-
8694
I
nt
J
P
ow
Elec
& Dr
i
S
y
st, Vol. 10,
N
o.
1, Mar
c
h 2
0
1
9
:
1
– 9
8
5.
E
V
I
M
P
LE
ME
N
T
AT
I
O
N
F
i
gure
1
0
s
ho
w
s
t
he
b
asic
E
V
pro
p
u
l
s
i
o
n
s
ys
tem
.
B
a
t
t
e
ri
es
o
r
fu
el
cell
s
c
an
g
en
era
lly
b
e
u
s
ed
a
s
ene
r
g
y
sys
tem
in EV
s
[
2
2
].
Figure
1
0
.
B
a
si
c
elec
tric ve
h
i
c
le pr
o
p
u
ls
io
n s
y
s
t
e
m
5.1.
Ele
c
tr
i
c
ve
h
ic
l
e
t
echn
o
l
o
g
i
es
The
esse
nt
ia
l
te
chn
o
l
o
g
ie
s
f
o
r
EV
s
are
:
E
V,
hybri
d
,
a
n
d
fuel
c
e
l
l
v
e
hi
c
l
es
.
B
a
tt
eri
e
s
are
u
s
e
d
a
s
ene
r
g
y
s
tora
ge
tha
t pow
ers the
ele
c
t
ric mo
t
o
r of
t
he EV
to ac
h
i
e
v
e z
e
r
o
em
i
ssi
ons. Ba
t
t
e
r
i
e
s
a
n
d
c
onve
n
t
i
ona
l
gas
o
l
i
ne
a
re
u
se
d
t
o
p
ow
e
r
h
y
b
ri
d
gas
/
EV
s
for
prop
u
l
s
i
o
n
.
The
h
y
b
rid
s
g
e
n
er
ate
les
s
t
a
ilpi
p
e
e
m
iss
i
ons
t
ha
n
the
ga
s
o
li
ne
c
ou
n
t
erpa
rt.
Th
e
de
ve
lo
pme
n
t
of
f
uel
ce
l
l
s
cou
l
d
b
oo
st
t
he
E
V
s
t
hro
u
g
h
g
ener
a
tin
g
ele
c
t
r
i
c
i
t
y
on
b
o
ard,
w
hic
h
i
s
an
e
m
i
ss
i
o
n-fr
ee
source
[
12].
The
m
a
in
d
iffer
e
n
ce
b
e
t
we
en
E
V
tech
no
l
o
g
i
e
s
i
s
the
me
t
h
o
d
use
d
to
ge
nera
t
e
the
e
lec
t
rici
ty
t
ha
t p
o
w
e
r
s
the
e
lec
t
ric
s
m
oto
rs.
5.2.
Bat
t
er
y EV
s an
d
f
u
e
l
c
e
l
l ve
h
i
cle
s
A
m
a
jor
c
onc
er
n
of
a
n
y
n
e
w
t
e
c
hn
o
l
og
y
now
a
d
ay
s
i
s
e
nerg
y
st
orag
e
[2
3].
S
o
me
e
ne
rgy
stora
g
e
t
e
c
hno
log
i
es
c
a
n
b
e
i
m
pl
emen
t
e
d
c
o
mme
r
ci
a
l
l
y
a
t
s
m
all
-
sc
al
e
i
n
t
eg
rat
i
o
n
,
b
ut
o
th
ers
mu
st
b
e
furt
h
e
r
deve
l
ope
d.
T
h
e
s
t
u
dy
hi
g
h
l
i
gh
ts
t
he
c
ha
l
l
enge
s
t
h
at
p
r
e
ven
t
t
he
c
om
me
rcial
de
p
l
o
y
m
e
nt
o
f
t
h
e
s
e
e
n
ergy
st
o
r
a
g
e
te
chno
lo
gi
e
s
[
23
].
T
he
B
a
t
t
e
ry
El
e
c
t
ri
c
Ve
h
i
cl
e
(BEV)
i
s a
prom
ising
t
e
c
h
no
l
o
g
y
,
bu
t
i
t
s
t
i
l
l
n
e
e
ds
t
o
be
b
e
deve
l
o
p
e
d
t
o
g
a
i
n
so
cial
acc
e
p
tanc
e
.
T
his
s
t
ud
y
re
vi
e
w
s
t
he
t
e
c
hn
o
l
o
g
i
ca
l
rea
d
ine
s
s
of
t
he
B
E
V
t
e
c
hno
log
y
a
nd
h
ig
hlig
ht
s
t
h
e
mai
n
t
ec
hno
lo
gi
cal
i
ssu
e
s
to
b
e
h
a
n
ded
f
o
r
v
i
sib
l
e
prog
re
ss
[
2
4
].
B
E
V
s
ha
v
e
hi
ghe
r effi
c
i
e
n
cy a
nd
a
re mor
e com
m
e
r
cial c
om
pare
d
w
i
t
h
fue
l ce
l
l
v
ehi
c
l
e
s
(FC
V
s).
B
E
Vs
a
nd
F
C
V
s
are
t
h
e
on
ly
t
w
o
ze
r
o-e
m
issi
on ca
n
d
i
da
t
e
s [2
5].
5.3.
EV
en
e
r
gy so
u
r
ces
Ene
r
g
y
e
ffic
i
e
n
cy,
ener
g
y
u
ti
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n,
a
nd
e
nviro
nm
enta
l
pro
t
e
c
tio
n
h
a
ve
a
t
t
rac
t
e
d
i
nc
rea
s
in
g
conc
er
n
i
n
r
e
s
ear
ch
a
nd
in
du
stry
b
ec
au
se
o
f
ene
r
g
y
c
os
t.
A
p
art
o
f
t
h
is
m
ajor
c
o
n
cer
n
is
t
o
a
c
h
ieve
a
g
re
en
ene
r
g
y
e
ff
i
c
i
e
nt
t
r
a
ns
por
tat
i
on
s
y
s
t
em
t
hr
oug
h
im
p
l
e
m
e
n
ta
t
i
o
n
o
f
EV
s.
T
he
pop
u
l
ari
z
a
tio
n
o
f
E
V
s
on
t
h
e
ro
a
d
a
nd
t
h
e
e
n
e
rgy
sou
r
ce
s
a
r
e
k
e
y
t
e
c
hnol
ogi
es
t
h
a
t
co
ul
d
po
s
sib
l
y
rea
l
iz
e
t
h
e
com
m
e
r
cia
l
i
m
p
l
e
me
nt
a
t
i
o
n
of
E
V
s
.
The
s
t
orage
sys
t
e
m
i
m
p
lem
e
n
t
ed
i
n
an
E
V
s
h
ou
ld
f
ul
fill
t
h
e
re
quire
me
n
t
o
f
hi
gh
pow
e
r
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
t
o
ac
com
p
lis
h i
t
s a
n
t
i
c
i
p
a
te
d dri
v
i
ng ra
n
g
e
.
T
y
p
i
c
a
l
e
nerg
y
stor
ag
e de
vice
s for au
t
o
m
o
t
i
v
e app
l
ica
t
i
o
ns ar
e
l
e
a
d
-
a
c
i
d
,
n
i
c
k
e
l
m
e
t
a
l
hyd
rid
e
,
an
d
lit
hiu
m
i
on
b
a
t
t
eri
e
s
[26
]
.
Ch
a
rgi
n
g
EVs
u
s
in
g
pho
tovo
l
t
a
i
c
(
P
V
)
h
a
s
b
e
en
pro
pose
d
[
2
7
].
T
he
f
o
l
l
o
w
i
ng appr
o
a
che
s
a
r
e
a
vai
l
a
b
le.
T
h
e
fir
s
t i
s
a
c
om
b
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
of
P
V
a
nd the
gr
id,
a
n
d
t
h
e
se
c
o
n
d
i
s
u
sin
g
PV
a
s
t
h
e
sou
r
c
e
on
l
y
,
whi
c
h
i
s
m
o
r
e
popu
l
a
r.
T
he
f
ina
l
a
im
i
s
t
o
r
ed
u
c
e
t
h
e
e
m
iss
i
on
ove
r
the
e
n
tire
li
fe
o
f
a
veh
i
c
l
e,
i
nc
lu
din
g
t
he
e
n
e
rgy
an
d
m
a
ter
i
a
l
u
se
d
t
o
p
o
w
er
i
t
[28].
Th
e
fue
l
c
el
l
oper
a
t
e
s
i
n
an elec
t
r
o
c
h
em
ical proce
ss t
h
a
t
c
on
ve
rts
c
h
e
m
ic
al
e
ner
gy int
o
e
l
e
c
t
ri
ca
l
e
n
ergy
.
Th
e
fu
el
c
el
l
sy
st
e
m
h
as
z
e
r
o
em
issi
on
bec
a
u
se
it
d
o
e
s
n
o
t
e
mit
any
e
x
ha
us
t
gas.
T
he
w
a
s
t
a
ge
of
t
he
r
e
acti
o
n
re
su
lts
i
n
the
pr
od
uc
t
i
o
n
o
f
on
ly
w
ater
a
nd
hea
t
[
2
9
].
6.
CONCL
U
S
IONS
The
i
n
s
t
ab
i
lit
y
of
g
as
oli
n
e
pr
ic
es
i
s
a
com
p
ell
i
ng
impe
t
u
s
for
the
de
ve
lopm
en
t
o
f
E
V
drives.
EV
dri
v
es
a
re
e
sse
n
tia
l
an
d
p
l
ay
m
a
j
or
r
o
l
e
s
i
n
e
c
on
om
ic
a
n
d
e
nv
i
r
on
ment
al
i
ssu
es.
Th
e
d
e
si
gn
a
nd
d
ev
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
of
a
n
ef
fic
i
e
n
t
motor
dr
ive
a
i
m
to
s
a
tis
fy
t
h
e
c
ha
rac
t
e
r
is
tic
s
ne
ede
d
t
o
pe
rfor
m
as
p
ar
t
o
f
t
he
p
r
o
p
u
l
s
i
o
n
u
n
it.
Thi
s
m
a
j
o
r
a
i
m
c
an
b
e
re
al
iz
ed
b
y
u
s
in
g
di
git
a
l
si
gn
a
l
c
o
n
t
ro
ll
er
s
a
s
r
e
p
lace
me
n
t
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
nve
n
tio
na
l
c
ontr
o
l
syste
m
s to
min
im
i
z
e mo
t
o
r T
H
D
,
low
er ope
ra
ting
t
e
mp
e
r
at
ure
,
i
nc
rea
s
e
effic
i
e
n
cy, a
n
d
im
prove
p
ower
f
act
or
rati
ng.
T
he
v
e
h
ic
les
use
d
b
y
the
m
a
jor
i
t
y
o
f
t
h
e
p
o
pula
t
i
on
ha
v
e
b
e
c
o
m
e
p
a
r
t
o
f
o
u
r
d
a
i
l
y
l
i
f
e
.
T
h
e
h
i
g
h
perc
en
tage
o
f
ca
rbo
n
e
m
i
ss
i
ons
f
rom
t
h
e
e
x
ha
us
t
of
t
he
se
v
e
h
ic
l
es
c
o
m
e
s
f
rom
the
con
v
e
n
ti
ona
l
i
n
t
e
r
n
al
com
b
u
s
ti
on
e
n
gi
ne.
The
iss
u
e
i
s
m
ore
seri
ous
i
n
a
t
o
w
n
a
re
a
w
h
e
re
t
he
v
e
h
ic
l
e
s
a
r
e
t
h
e
ma
jor
sour
ces
o
f
po
llu
t
i
o
n
t
ha
t
ca
use
gre
e
n
h
o
u
se
e
ffe
c
t
.
E
V
s
ca
n
in
dire
ct
l
y
a
ffe
c
t
car
b
on
em
iss
i
on
s
a
t
t
he
pow
er
p
la
nt
l
e
v
e
l
.
St
ri
c
t
s
t
a
nd
ards
o
f
C
O
2
po
wer
p
l
a
n
t
emi
s
sio
n
l
ev
el
s
c
a
n
mi
n
i
mi
z
e
t
h
is
e
ffec
t
an
d
t
h
us
r
educ
e
a
i
r
p
o
l
l
u
t
io
n.
The
c
onc
erns
on
e
n
e
r
gy
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
a
n
d
e
ne
rgy
co
ns
um
p
t
i
on
becom
e
m
ore
a
c
tive
to
p
r
o
tec
t
t
he
e
n
v
i
ronm
en
t.
The
bes
t
a
lt
e
r
nat
i
v
e
so
lu
t
i
on
f
or
r
o
a
d
tra
n
s
por
tat
i
on
i
s
t
h
e
us
e
o
f
E
V
s
.
The
d
e
vel
o
pme
n
t
o
f
e
ne
rg
y
sourc
e
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int J
P
o
w
El
e
c
&
D
ri S
yst
I
S
S
N
:
2088-
86
94
Elec
tri
c
vehic
l
e
tec
h
n
o
l
o
g
y
i
m
pac
ts
o
n
e
n
er
gy (
W
ael A
.
Sa
la
h)
9
sup
p
l
i
es for l
ong-
t
e
rm
d
rive
s is
t
he cruc
i
a
l
t
e
c
hno
lo
g
y
for com
me
rcializa
t
i
on
a
nd po
p
u
lar
i
z
a
t
i
on of EV
s
. Thi
s
pape
r
dem
o
nstr
ates
t
he
p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l
o
f
EV
s
i
n
v
e
h
i
c
ul
a
r
u
sa
g
e
a
n
d
p
r
ac
tica
b
il
it
y
t
o
f
u
l
fi
l
l
t
he
w
or
ld’s
g
r
o
w
i
n
g
dem
a
nd
on
ene
r
gy w
i
t
h
ou
t
aff
ecti
n
g e
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
ent
air qua
l
i
t
y
REFE
RENCES
[1]
I.
B
oldea
and
S
. A.
Nas
a
r,
"
Elect
ri
c drives
,"
B
oca Raton,
F
la.
:
CR
C
/T
a
y
lor &
Franci
s, 2006.
[2]
A.
A
.
S
n
eineh
and
W.
A
.
S
a
l
a
h,
"
M
o
d
e
ll
in
g
o
f
a
h
i
gh-s
p
eed
p
r
e
cis
i
o
n
r
o
b
o
t
f
o
r
m
icroel
ectromech
ani
c
a
l
s
y
s
t
e
ms
bo
nd
ing
pro
cess
appl
icat
ion,
"
Ma
ejo
In
ter
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l Jo
ur
nal
o
f
Sci
e
nce an
d T
ech
n
o
l
o
g
y
,
A
r
t
i
c
l
e
v
o
l
.
1
2
,
n
o
.
1
,
p
p
.
5
1
-6
9, 2
01
8.
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J.
F
.
G
i
eras
a
nd
S
pringerL
i
nk,
Adva
ncem
ents
in
Elect
r
i
c M
a
chin
es
.
Avai
l
a
bl
e
:
h
ttp://dx
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40
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0
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[4
]
N. Mo
h
a
n, "
El
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r
i
v
e
s
: a
n
int
e
gr
ati
ve ap
pr
o
a
ch
,
"
M
in
neap
olis: M
N
PE
RE,
2003.
[5]
M
.
H
.
Rashi
d
,
"P
ow
er
e
lect
ron
i
cs
:
c
i
r
cu
its,
dev
i
ces
,
a
n
d
a
pp
li
catio
ns,
"
U
pper
S
a
dd
le
R
iv
er,
N
.
J
.
:
P
ears
o
n
/
P
r
ent
i
c
e
Hal
l
, 20
0
4
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[6]
T.
o
.
Wild
i,
"
E
l
ectri
cal
m
achi
n
es
,
dri
v
es,
an
d
p
o
w
e
r
sy
ste
m
s,"
Upp
e
r
S
a
ddl
e
Riv
e
r,
N
.J.:
P
ears
o
n
/
P
r
entice
Hal
l
, 20
0
6
.
[7]
W.
A
.
Salah,
A
.
Al
-
M
o
f
leh,
a
nd
S
.
Ta
i
b
,
"
E
nergy
effici
ency
p
r
acti
ces
i
n
po
wer
s
upp
li
es:
S
cenario
a
nd
s
olutio
n
,
"
En
ergy
So
urces
, P
a
rt B
:
Eco
nom
ics
,
P
l
an
n
i
ng
,
a
n
d
Policy,
vo
l.
1
1
,
n
o
.
2
,
pp
.
1
8
2
-
19
0,
2
01
6
/
02/
01 2
016
.
[8]
D. P
olk
a
, "M
ot
o
r
s
and
dri
v
es
: a practi
cal t
echn
o
lo
gy
gu
i
d
e
," Res
earch
T
rian
gl
e Park, N
C: ISA
, 2
0
0
3
.
[9]
"Anal
o
g
Tech
nol
og
ies, S
emico
n
d
u
cto
r
s,
D
i
g
it
al Si
g
n
a
l P
r
o
ces
sin
g
," Texas Ins
t
r
u
m
en
t
s
(T
I
)
, 20
0
6
.
[1
0]
N
.
Ga
ura
v
a
nd
C
.
K.
N
a
r
a
y
a
n
,
"
A
S
urv
e
y
a
n
d
Com
p
a
r
iso
n
o
f
C
haracteri
s
t
i
cs
o
f
M
o
t
o
r
D
r
iv
es
Used
i
n
E
lect
ric
Veh
i
cles
,"
i
n
El
ectrica
l a
nd Comp
ut
er Eng
i
n
e
e
r
in
g,
2006.
CCECE
'06.
Can
a
d
i
an Con
f
er
ence o
n
,
pp
.
8
11-8
1
4
,
2
0
0
6.
[11
]
N
at
ion
a
l Energ
y
Bal
ance, Mi
n
istry o
f
En
e
rgy
, Co
m
m
unicatio
n
s
a
n
d
M
u
l
t
imed
ia, Kual
a
Lum
pu
r, M
alay
si
a, 20
0
5
.
[12
]
N
at
io
nal Energ
y
Bal
ance, Mi
n
istry o
f
En
e
rgy
, Co
m
m
unicatio
n
s
a
n
d
M
u
l
t
imed
ia, Kual
a
Lum
pu
r, M
alay
si
a, 20
0
3
.
[13
]
E
co
no
m
i
c
P
l
anni
ng
Un
i
t
,
The
Mal
a
ys
ian
Ec
on
om
i
c
i
n
Fig
u
res,
E
con
o
mi
c
P
l
ann
i
n
g
U
nit,
P
rim
e
M
in
i
s
t
e
r’s
Dep
a
rtm
e
nt,
P
utrajay
a
, Malays
i
a, 2
00
4.
[1
4]
"
Th
e
En
e
r
gy
Info
r
ma
t
i
o
n
Ad
m
inistrat
i
o
n (
E
IA),
h
t
t
p:
/
/
www
.
e
ia.
doe.
g
ov
.
"
[1
5]
K
.
Lia
s
k
a
s,
G
.
Ma
vro
t
a
s
,
M.
M
a
n
da
ra
k
a
,
a
nd
D.
D
ia
ko
ula
k
i,
"D
e
c
o
m
po
sition
of
i
nd
ustrial
CO
<sub
>2</
su
b
>
em
issio
n
s
:
T
he
c
as
e of
Euro
p
ean
Un
i
o
n
,"
En
e
r
gy
Ec
on
omic
s,
v
o
l
. 2
2,
n
o.
4
,
pp
.
383-3
9
4
,
2
0
0
0
.
[16]
R
.
J
.
K
opp
,
"
Transp
ort
Po
lici
e
s
to
R
educe
CO
2
E
m
i
ssion
s
f
r
o
m
t
he
L
i
g
h
t
-D
uty
Vehi
cle
F
l
eet.
Is
sue
Brief
12
,
R
FF-
Reso
urces
f
or
t
he
f
utu
r
e
envi
ron
m
e
n
tal
a
n
d
nat
u
ral
resou
r
ce
w
o
r
ld
wide
p
o
l
i
c
ym
ak
i
n
g
,
a
vail
abl
e
a
t:
ht
tp:/
/ww
w
.
r
ff
.
o
rg/
P
ubli
c
atio
ns.
"
[17
]
G
.
R.
T
imilsina
an
d
A.
S
h
r
est
h
a,
"
Trans
p
o
r
t
sect
or
C
O2
e
mi
ss
ions
g
rowth
in
A
si
a:
U
n
d
erl
y
in
g
fact
ors
an
d
po
li
cy
op
ti
ons,
"
En
erg
y
Poli
cy,
do
i:
DOI:
1
0
.
101
6/j.
en
p
o
l.
2
0
0
9
.
0
6.
0
09
v
o
l.
3
7
,
n
o.
1
1,
pp.
4
5
2
3
-45
39,
2009
.
[18
]
I
EA
(20
07).
In
t
e
rnat
ion
a
l E
n
erg
y
A
gen
c
y (IEA
)
Dat
abas
e Vo
l
.,
Release
0
1
, 2
00
7.
[1
9]
K
.
T
.
C
ha
u
,
Y
.
S.
W
on
g
,
a
nd
C
.
C.
C
ha
n,
"
An
o
ve
rv
ie
w
of
e
n
ergy
s
ources
f
o
r
e
l
ectric
veh
i
cl
es,"
Ener
gy
Co
nv
e
rsio
n
a
n
d
Ma
na
ge
me
n
t
,
vo
l
.
40
,
no
. 1
0,
p
p.
1
0
2
1
-
10
3
9
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// 1
9
9
9
.
[2
0]
A
.
A
l
-Mo
f
le
h,
S
.
Ta
ib
,
a
n
d
W
.
A
.
Sa
la
h
,
"
Ma
la
ys
ia
n
e
n
e
r
g
y
de
ma
nd
a
n
d
e
mi
ss
io
n
s
f
r
o
m
th
e
tr
a
n
sp
or
ta
t
i
o
n
s
e
c
to
r
,
"
Tran
spo
r
t
,
vol.
2
5
,
no
.
4
,
p
p
.
4
48-45
3,
2
01
0.
[2
1]
I
. Hu
s
ai
n
,
El
ectri
c a
nd
hybrid
vehi
c
les
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u
nd
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ent
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CR
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C
.
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h
e
s
t
at
e
of
t
he
a
rt
o
f
el
ectric
a
nd
hyb
rid
v
eh
ic
l
e
s
,
"
Pr
oceed
ing
s
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IEEE
,
v
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l
.
9
0
,
n
o
.
2
,
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47-2
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,
2
0
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2.
[23
]
M
.
An
e
k
e
and
M
.
W
an
g
,
"
En
e
r
gy
s
t
orag
e
tech
n
o
l
o
g
i
es
a
n
d
r
ea
l
l
i
f
e
a
pplications
–
A
s
tat
e
o
f
the
art
review,
"
Applied Energy,
Rev
i
ew v
ol
.
1
7
9
, pp
. 3
50
-37
7
, 2
01
6.
[24
]
A
.
M
a
h
m
oud
zadeh
A
n
d
wari
,
A.
P
es
iri
d
is,
S.
R
ajoo
,
R.
M
arti
n
ez-Bot
a
s,
a
n
d
V
.
Es
f
a
hani
an,
"A
r
ev
iew
of
B
att
e
ry
El
ectric
Veh
i
cle
techn
o
l
o
g
y
a
n
d
r
e
a
d
i
n
e
ss
l
ev
els,"
Ren
e
wa
bl
e an
d
Sus
tain
ab
le Ener
gy R
eviews,
Revi
e
w
v
ol.
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14-4
3
0
,
2
0
1
7.
[25]
T
h
e Elect
r
i
c
Auto
Associ
a
t
io
n
(E
AA)
,
2
008
, a
v
ai
lable at:
www.
e
a
aev.
o
r
g
.
[2
6]
B
.
K.
T
an
,
N.
M
.
L.
T
an,
an
d
A.
K
.
R
a
masamy
,
"Desi
g
n
o
f
a
batt
ery-u
l
t
r
a
cap
a
c
it
or
h
y
b
ri
d
energ
y
-st
o
rag
e
s
ystem
with
p
o
w
er
f
l
o
w
con
t
rol
f
o
r
an
e
lect
ric
v
e
hi
c
l
e,"
In
tern
atio
nal
Jo
ur
na
l of Power
Electr
onics
a
n
d D
r
i
ve Sys
t
ems
(I
J
P
E
D
S
)
,
Ar
tic
l
e
v
ol.
9,
no
.
1
,
p
p
.
2
86
-2
96
, 2
01
8.
[
2
7
]
A
.
R
.
B
h
a
t
t
i
,
Z
.
S
a
l
a
m
,
M
.
J
.
B
.
A
.
A
z
i
z
,
a
n
d
K
.
P
.
Y
e
e
,
"
A
co
mprehen
s
i
v
e
ov
erview
o
f
electri
c
veh
i
cle
ch
arg
i
n
g
us
in
g
renewab
l
e
energ
y
,
"
Int
e
rna
t
i
o
n
a
l
Jo
ur
nal of
P
o
wer
E
l
ectr
o
n
i
cs
a
nd
Dri
ve
Syst
ems
(
I
JPED
S
)
,
Ar
ticle
v
ol
.
7,
no
.
1
,
pp
.
1
1
4
-
1
2
3,
2
01
6.
[28
]
J
.
Y.
Y
ong,
V
.
K.
R
am
achan
daram
u
rt
hy,
K
.
M.
T
a
n
,
and
N.
M
i
th
ulan
ant
h
an,
"A
r
evi
e
w
on
th
e
s
t
at
e-o
f
-th
e
-art
tech
no
log
i
es
o
f
el
ectric
v
e
hi
cl
e,
i
ts
i
m
p
act
s
an
d
p
r
osp
ects
,
"
Renewa
bl
e and
Su
st
ai
nab
le E
n
er
gy Re
vi
ews,
vo
l.
4
9,
pp
.
3
65-3
8
5
,
2
0
1
5.
[
2
9
]
H
.
S
.
D
a
s
,
C
.
W
.
T
a
n
,
a
n
d
A
.
H
.
M
.
Y
a
t
i
m
,
"
F
u
e
l
c
e
l
l
h
y
b
r
i
d
e
l
ectri
c
veh
i
cle
s
:
A
revi
ew
o
n
p
o
wer
co
nd
itionin
g
un
its
a
n
d
t
op
o
l
o
g
i
e
s,
"
R
e
newa
ble
and
S
u
st
ai
na
b
l
e En
ergy
Reviews
,
v
o
l
.
7
6
, pp
. 26
8
-2
91
, 20
1
7
.
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