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ati
o
n
a
l
Jo
urn
a
l
o
f
P
u
b
lic Hea
l
th Science (IJ
P
HS)
V
o
l.3
,
No
.4
, Dece
m
b
er
2
014
,
p
p
.
2
5
3
~
258
I
S
SN
: 225
2-8
8
0
6
2
53
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urn
a
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h
o
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pa
ge
: h
ttp
://iaesjo
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r
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l.com/
o
n
lin
e/ind
e
x.ph
p
/
IJPHS
Effect of Storage Containers on
Quality of Household Drinking
Water in Urb
a
n Commu
nities
in Ibadan, Nigeri
a
Ol
anrew
a
j
u
O
n
i
g
b
ogi
1
, O
l
uwa
t
oy
in
Og
u
n
y
emi
2
1
Department of
Community
Health
and Primar
y
Care, University of Lagos,
Lagos
, Niger
i
a
2
Departm
e
nt
of
Environm
enta
l
Health
, Schoo
l o
f
H
y
g
e
ine
,
I
j
ero
Ekiti
,
Ekit
i St
ate
,
Niger
i
a
Article Info
A
B
STRAC
T
Article histo
r
y:
Received Sept 1, 2014
Rev
i
sed
O
c
t 20
, 20
14
Accepted Nov 16, 2014
The method of storage is essential in
maintainin
g water purity
and safety
fo
r
drinking purpos
es. Th
is stud
y assesse
d the
effect of v
a
rio
u
s storage
containers on
ho
usehold drink
i
ng
wate
r
qua
lit
y
in
a r
e
source-
lim
it
ed set
ting.
A quasi-experim
e
ntal desi
gn was
adopted
. Four com
m
unities using protected
springs as household dr
inking
water
sources
were purposively
selected
.
Forty
-four hous
eholds were selected
a
nd randomly
assigned to
fo
ur treatment
groups; namely
Covered Buck
ets with Ta
ps (CBT), Cover
e
d Buckets without
Tap (CB), Cov
e
red Kegs with Taps
(CKT) and
Covered Kegs
without Tap
(CK). P
h
y
s
ico
c
hem
i
cal
ana
l
y
s
is
and ba
cter
iolog
i
ca
l ana
l
y
s
is
we
re car
ried
out on the w
a
ter samples befor
e
and
afte
r
they were put
in the containers
.
Da
ta
wa
s
a
n
aly
z
e
d
using SPSS ve
rsion 12. At ba
se
line
,
mea
n
pH va
lue
s
of
wa
te
r sa
mple
s
from the
springs a
nd RSC
were 6.4±0
.
6
and 7.1±0.7
res
p
ect
ivel
y w
h
ich wer
e
ab
ove th
e re
co
m
m
e
nded. M
ean ch
lorid
e
concen
tration of
springs (14.3±7.4mg
/l) and RS
C (19.3±10.0 mg/l) samples
were below reco
mmended. Mean Total
Co
liform Count (TCC) of
the springs
in the four
com
m
unities was 18.0±4.0
and m
ean
TCC of RSC was 12.7±4.9
.
Five per
cent o
f
water
sa
mpl
e
s from RSC ha
d me
a
n
E.
coli
count o
f
100/100ml. The
mean TCC after
introduc
ing CB
, CBT, CK and
CKT in all
the
com
m
unities were 10
.0±4.0,
8.5±4.2
,
6.9±2
.
8 and 7
.
3±3.7 r
e
spect
iv
e
l
y
(p<0.05)
. The
use of covered
kegs
without tap was best in reducing
contaminan
ts in
drinking water.
Educ
ation on
ap
propriate househ
old drinking
water stor
age an
d handling pr
actices is r
ecommended.
Keyword:
C
ont
ai
ne
rs
Qu
ality
S
t
o
r
ag
e
Water
Copyright ©
201
4 Institut
e
o
f
Ad
vanced
Engin
eer
ing and S
c
i
e
nce.
All rights re
se
rve
d
.
Co
rresp
ond
i
ng
Autho
r
:
Olan
rewa
ju On
igb
ogi,
Depa
rt
m
e
nt
of
C
o
m
m
uni
t
y
Heal
t
h
an
d P
r
i
m
ary
C
a
re,
U
n
i
v
er
sity
of
Lago
s, Lago
s, N
i
g
e
r
i
a
Telep
hon
e: 080
742
337
89
.
Em
ail: oonigbogi
@unilag.e
d
u.ng
1.
INTRODUCTION
Access to sa
fe
drinking wat
e
r has im
proved stead
ily and substantially ove
r the last decades i
n
alm
o
st every
part of the
worl
d.
It is
estim
a
t
ed
th
at
b
y
2025
m
o
r
e
th
an
h
a
lf
of
th
e
po
pu
l
a
tio
n
o
f
t
h
e
w
o
r
l
d
w
ill
h
a
v
e
so
m
e
water-b
a
sed
vu
ln
erab
ility [1
]. A
repo
rt
b
y
th
e Fed
e
ral Office
of Statistics esti
mates th
at o
u
t
o
f
th
e
total urban household in Ni
ge
ria, only 53.3% had access t
o
pipe-borne water while 43
.3% of the
househol
d in
Southwest
Nigeria (of which
Ibadan
is part
) had
such
access [2]. In 2010
about
85%
of
the global population
(6.74
b
illio
n peo
p
l
e)
h
a
d access to p
i
p
e
d
water
supp
ly th
rou
g
h
ho
u
s
e
co
nn
ection
s
, pro
t
ected sp
rings and
protected
wells. Howe
ve
r, a
b
out
14%
(884
million pe
ople) di
d not
have
access to a
n
i
m
prove
d wate
r source
and
ha
d t
o
use
un
p
r
ot
ect
ed
we
l
l
s
or
sp
ri
n
g
s,
c
a
nal
s
, l
a
kes
or
ri
ver
s
f
o
r t
h
ei
r
wat
e
r
nee
d
s
[2
]
.
Som
e
of t
h
e
da
nge
rs ass
o
ci
at
ed wi
t
h
wat
e
r c
a
n be
di
rect
or
i
ndi
rect
c
ont
a
m
i
n
at
i
on w
h
i
c
h co
ul
d
be a
s
a res
u
l
t
o
f
e
x
c
r
em
ent
of
war
m
bl
oode
d a
n
i
m
al
s.
W
a
t
e
r
re
l
a
t
e
d di
sease
i
s
o
n
e
o
f
t
h
e
m
a
jo
r
heal
t
h
p
r
o
b
l
e
m
s
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
06
IJPHS
Vol. 3, No. 4, D
ecem
ber 2014
:
253 – 258
25
4
g
l
ob
ally th
at has estim
a
t
ed
fo
ur
b
illio
n
cases of
d
i
ar
rho
e
a
ann
u
a
lly
represen
ting
5
.
7
%
o
f
th
e g
l
ob
al disease
burden in the year 2000 [3]. Safe wa
ter storage is the use of clean contai
ners wi
t
h
cove
rs an
d go
o
d
hy
gi
en
e
beha
vi
o
u
r
s t
h
at
pre
v
e
n
t
co
nt
a
m
i
n
at
i
on d
u
r
i
n
g
wat
e
r c
o
l
l
ect
i
on,
t
r
a
n
sp
ort
,
and
st
o
r
age
i
n
t
h
e
hom
e [2]
.
Hi
g
h
er
lev
e
ls o
f
m
i
cro
b
i
al co
n
t
am
in
atio
n
and
in
creased
m
i
cro
b
i
al q
u
a
lity are asso
ciated
with
st
o
r
ag
e v
e
ssels h
a
v
i
n
g
wid
e
op
en
ing
s
(e.g
.,
b
u
c
k
e
ts an
d
p
o
t
s), vu
ln
erab
ility to
in
trod
u
c
tion
of h
a
nd
s, cu
p
s
an
d
d
i
p
p
e
rs th
at can
carry
faecal m
a
tter, a
n
d lack
of a
na
rrow
ope
n
ing for
dis
p
ensing water [2].
St
udi
es
have s
h
o
w
n t
h
at
si
zes of c
ont
ai
ne
rs o
p
e
n
i
n
g pl
a
y
s si
gni
fi
cant
rol
e
i
n
m
a
i
n
t
a
i
n
i
ng
wat
e
r
q
u
a
lity, b
u
t
not so
m
u
ch
h
a
d b
een
said
on
h
o
w th
e d
i
fferen
t o
p
e
n
i
ng
sizes o
f
con
t
ainer h
a
d
affected
water
p
u
rity/q
u
a
lity [4
],[5
].
2.
R
E
SEARC
H M
ETHOD
Stud
y Are
a
Iba
d
a
n
i
s
t
h
e l
a
rgest
i
n
di
ge
n
ous
u
r
ba
n ce
nt
re i
n
Su
b-
Sah
a
r
a
Af
r
i
ca w
ith a p
r
o
j
ected
po
pu
latio
n
of
fou
r
m
illio
n
.
It
is ch
aracterized
b
y
an
elev
atio
n
o
f
2
1
0
m
ab
ov
e t
h
e sea l
e
v
e
l with
iso
l
ated
ridg
es and
p
eaks
risin
g
to
an
el
ev
atio
n of
27
4m
. Th
e stu
d
y
was carried
o
u
t in
fou
r
d
i
fferen
t co
mm
u
n
ities in
Ib
ad
an
Nort
h
Local Government
Area
.
Stud
y Desi
gn
A
q
u
a
si-exp
erimen
tal d
e
sign
was ado
p
t
ed
for th
e stud
y.
It i
n
vo
lv
ed
qu
an
titativ
e m
e
th
o
d
(lab
orato
r
y
-
base
d asses
s
m
e
nt
f
r
om
spri
n
g
s
o
u
r
ces
t
o
h
o
u
se
hol
d st
o
r
a
g
e co
nt
ai
ners
).
Samplin
g Pr
ocedure
Fou
r
co
mm
u
n
ities in
th
e Ib
ad
an
No
rth
Lo
cal Gov
e
rn
m
e
n
t
th
at u
s
ed
sprin
g
as t
h
eir so
le so
urce
of
d
r
i
n
k
i
n
g
water were purpo
si
vely selected
. In
th
e
co
mm
u
n
ities a two stage sam
p
lin
g
proced
ure
was ado
p
t
ed.
A
list of en
umeratio
n
areas in
t
h
e selected
co
mm
u
n
ities w
a
s ob
tained
fro
m
th
e N
a
tio
n
a
l
Populatio
n
Commission. From
the enumeration ar
eas
, one enum
eration area
was random
ly se
lected. T
h
e house
hol
ds
i
n
the enum
eration areas we
re num
b
ered and the desire
d nu
m
b
ers
of res
p
on
dent
s we
re sel
ect
ed usi
n
g sy
st
em
at
i
c
ran
d
o
m
sam
p
l
i
ng
m
e
t
hod.
L
a
bo
ra
tor
y
A
n
al
ysi
s
(p
hy
si
co-c
hemi
cal
a
nd
B
a
c
t
eri
ol
o
g
i
c
al
an
al
ysi
s
of
w
a
ter
s
a
mp
l
e
s)
Th
e env
i
ron
m
e
n
tal field
sam
p
lin
g
th
at was carried
ou
t in
this stu
d
y
was co
llectio
n
of water sam
p
les
fr
om
t
h
e sourc
e
of
wat
e
r s
u
p
p
l
y
(sp
r
i
n
gs)
,
h
ous
eh
ol
d
reg
u
l
a
r st
ora
g
e c
ont
ai
ners a
nd i
n
t
r
od
uce
d
co
nt
ai
n
e
rs f
o
r
d
e
term
in
atio
n
o
f
ph
ysico-ch
emical an
d
b
acterio
log
i
cal qu
ality.
Sa
mple Co
llectio
n
f
o
r p
h
ysi
c
o-c
h
emi
cal
a
n
al
ysi
s
Wat
e
r
sam
p
l
e
s we
re c
o
l
l
ect
ed acc
or
di
n
g
t
o
rec
o
m
m
ended st
a
nda
r
d
m
e
t
hods
de
scr
i
bed
by
t
h
e
Am
erican
Pu
blic Health
Asso
ciatio
n
[6
]. Plastic k
e
g
s
of 2
liter cap
acity were u
s
ed
t
o
co
llect sam
p
les for
p
h
y
sico
ch
em
ic
al p
a
ram
e
ters wh
ile
p
l
astic d
i
sp
en
se
b
o
ttles
o
f
60
m
l
s cap
acity were used
t
o
co
llect sam
p
l
e
s fo
r
heavy m
e
tal an
alysis. The sam
p
les were collected from
th
e t
a
ps of t
h
e sp
r
i
ngs a
nd al
s
o
wi
t
h
t
h
e ai
d
of
a cu
p
from
their regular stora
g
e
containers for physico-chem
ical analysis
. Sa
mples were immediately placed in a
l
i
ght
p
r
o
o
f i
n
s
u
l
a
t
e
d bo
x c
o
nt
ai
ni
ng m
e
l
t
i
ng i
ce wi
t
h
wat
e
r t
o
e
n
su
re r
a
pi
d c
ool
i
n
g a
n
d t
h
e a
n
al
y
s
i
s
were
commenced immediately th
e sa
m
p
les got
to
th
e lab
o
ratory. So
m
e
o
f
the p
a
ram
e
ters a
n
alysed
in
cluded
pH,
co
ndu
ctiv
ity, to
tal d
i
sso
l
v
e
d
so
lid
s, alk
a
lin
it
y, ch
lorid
e
, to
t
a
l h
a
rdn
e
ss t
o
tal so
lid
s, iro
n
,
man
g
a
n
e
se an
d lead
.
Sample
collection
for
ba
cteri
ol
o
g
i
c
al
an
al
y
s
i
s
Th
e con
t
ain
e
rs th
at were
u
s
ed
for sam
p
le co
llec
tio
n
were
prop
erly wash
ed
, rin
s
ed
with
d
i
stilled
water,
dry and
sterilized in a
n
oven at tem
p
e
r
ature
of
170
0
C
fo
r
1
ho
ur
.
Al
l
t
h
e c
ont
ai
n
e
rs
were cl
ose
d
unt
i
l
th
e po
in
t
o
f
sam
p
le co
llect
io
n
.
Sam
p
les were co
llect
ed
f
r
om
spri
n
g
s,
r
e
gul
a
r
st
o
r
age
cont
ai
ners
, co
ver
e
d
buc
ket
s
wi
t
h
a
nd
wi
t
h
o
u
t
t
a
p
s
and c
ove
re
d
kegs
wi
t
h
and
witho
u
t
tap
s
. After t
h
e sam
p
le co
llec
tio
n
,
th
e
cont
ai
ne
rs
wer
e
cl
osed i
m
m
e
di
at
el
y
and t
a
k
e
n t
o
t
h
e l
a
bo
rato
ry fo
r an
aly
s
is. Sam
p
les were co
llected u
n
d
e
r
asep
tic cond
itio
n.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
PH
S I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
0
6
Effect o
f
S
t
orag
e C
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
rs
o
n
Qua
lity o
f
Hou
s
eh
o
l
d
Dri
n
king
Wa
ter in .... (Ol
a
n
r
ew
a
j
u
On
i
g
bog
i)
25
5
Da
ta
A
n
al
ysi
s
All the
data c
o
llected wa
s a
n
alyzed
using
SPSS
(S
tatistical Packa
g
e
for the S
o
cial Sci
e
nces). T
h
e
an
alysis in
clu
d
ed
d
e
scrip
tiv
e
statistics
su
ch
as
m
ean
s. Also, in
feren
tial statistics su
ch
as ch
i-sq
u
a
re test, t-test
and ANOVA a
t
5% le
vel of si
gni
ficance
we
re also
use
d
to a
n
alyze data.
Ethical c
o
nsiderati
on
The
recr
ui
t
m
ent
o
f
r
e
sp
o
nde
nt
s wa
s ba
sed
st
ri
ct
l
y
on i
n
fo
rm
ed conse
n
t
.
The ai
m
s
and
ob
ject
i
v
e
o
f
th
e stu
d
y
was fu
lly ex
p
l
ain
e
d
to
th
e particip
an
ts.
Th
e stu
d
y
p
a
rt
icip
an
ts were also
assu
red o
f
th
e
co
nfid
en
tiality
o
f
th
e i
n
fo
rm
at
io
n
supp
lied
.
3.
RESULTS
A
N
D
DI
SC
US
S
I
ON
Th
is section
presen
ts th
e results o
f
water analys
is fro
m
all
th
e co
mm
u
n
iti
es stu
d
i
ed
.
Water sam
p
les
fr
om
sources
(sp
r
i
n
g)
, H
o
us
ehol
d re
g
u
l
a
r
st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
ners a
n
d t
h
e
f
o
u
r
di
ffe
rent
t
r
eat
m
e
nt
cont
ai
ners
i
n
t
r
o
d
u
ced
- C
o
vere
d
buc
ket
s
wi
t
h
t
a
ps
, C
o
v
e
red
b
u
cket
s
w
i
t
hout
t
a
ps, C
o
vere
d
kegs
wi
t
h
t
a
ps a
n
d C
o
vere
d
k
e
gs withou
t tap
s
were co
llected
and
an
alyzed
for ph
ysico
-
ch
em
ical an
d
b
acterio
l
o
g
i
cal q
u
a
lity p
a
rameters.
Th
e
resu
lts were co
m
p
ared
with
World Health
Org
a
ni
za
t
i
on (
W
H
O
) g
u
i
d
el
i
n
es
an
d st
anda
rd
f
o
r
d
r
i
n
ki
n
g
water qu
ality
b
y
Stan
d
a
rd
Organ
i
satio
n
(SON) of Nig
e
ria.
Tab
l
e
1
.
Ph
ysi
c
o
-
ch
em
ical an
alysis o
f
water
sam
p
les in
all th
e co
mm
u
n
itie
s
Para
m
e
ter
Value
pH 7.
09±0.
65
M
ean T
o
tal Solid
1509.
0
0
±22
1
.
6
8
M
ean Conductivit
y
365.
75±
184.
1
4
M
ean T
o
tal Har
d
n
e
ss
64.
88±1
5
.
0
3
M
ean Alkalinity
(m
g/L
)
1.
85±0.
98
M
ean Chlor
i
de (
m
g/L
)
19.
28±9.
1
8
I
r
on (
µ
g/m
l
)
0.
16±0.
07
L
ead (
µ
g/m
l
)
0.
02±0.
01
M
a
nganese (
µ
g/m
l
)
0.
01±0.
01
Tab
l
e 1
ab
ov
e
o
u
tlin
es the Physico
-
ch
em
ical
an
alysis o
f
water sam
p
les in
all th
e co
mm
u
n
ities. The
wat
e
r sam
p
l
e
s
had
a m
ean p
H
val
u
e
o
f
7.
09
±0
.6
5
whi
c
h
fa
l
l
s
wi
t
h
i
n
t
h
e r
a
nge
o
f
WH
O
gui
del
i
n
e
of
6
.
5-
8.
5.
Th
e m
ean
to
tal so
lid
was 150
9.00±221
.6
8m
g
/
l an
d
th
e
mean
to
tal d
i
sso
lv
ed
so
li
d
was 1
9
6
.
00
±10
7
.27
m
g
/l.
Th
ese
were
also
wit
h
in
t
h
e
5
0
0
m
g
/l o
f
t
h
e
WHO gu
id
elin
e li
mits. Th
e mean
co
ndu
ctivity o
f
3
6
5
.
75
±18
4
.14µs/c
m
was also in
lin
e
with the
WHO gu
id
eli
n
e.
Tab
l
e
2
.
C
o
m
p
arison
o
f
th
e
bacterio
log
i
cal q
u
a
lity of
water Sam
p
les from
sp
rin
g
s
, regu
lar st
o
r
ag
e con
t
ain
e
rs,
co
v
e
red
b
u
c
k
e
t
s
and
cov
e
red
b
u
c
k
e
ts with
tap
s
i
n
all co
mmu
n
ities in two
weeks
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r W
e
ek
1
Wee
k
2
p value
Spr
i
ng
Regular
storage
container
Cover
e
d
buckets
Cover
e
d
buckets
with taps
Spr
i
ng
r
e
gular
storage
container
Cover
e
d
buckets
Cover
e
d
buckets
with taps
Mean Total
Coliform
Count /10
0
m
l
18.
00±
4.
00
14.
00±
6.
64
10.
00±
3.
94
10.
00±
3.
94
18.
00±
4.
00
12.
77±
4.
23
8.
51±
4.
16
8.
51±
4.
16
P=0.
21
Mean Total
Viable Count
of W
a
ter
(
c
fu/m
l)
2375
0.
00
±5678.
9
1490
0.
00
±1354
6.
5
1224
7.
00±
8106.
3
1224
7.
00
±8106.
3
2375
0.
00
±5678.
1335
0.
00±1
0988.
7
1111
2.
00±8
424.
7
1111
2.
00±
8424.
7
P=0.
12
Total Coliform
Count (
c
fu/m
l)
1850
0±70
47.
46
8938.
0
0
±
7247.
5
2
7903.
0
0
±7
561.
51
7903.
0
0
±
7561.
5
1
1850
0±70
47.
46
9425±
892
4.
88
1024
4.
00±7
558.
22
1024
4.
00±7
558.
22
P=0.
02
Table 2 com
p
ares the bacte
r
iological qual
ity of
water sam
p
les from
sprin
g
s
,
re
gu
lar stora
g
e
co
n
t
ain
e
rs, covered bu
ck
ets an
d cov
e
red bu
ck
ets
w
ith
tap
s
in
all co
mm
u
n
ities ov
er
2
week
s.
Th
e To
tal co
lifo
r
m
co
un
t/1
00ml o
f
water sam
p
les fro
m
spr
i
ngs a
n
d re
g
u
l
a
r st
o
r
age
co
nt
ai
ners i
n
al
l
co
mm
u
n
ities i
n
th
e
first
week
h
a
d
a m
ean
o
f
18
.0
0±4.00
/
1
00
m
l
an
d
14
.0
0±6
.
6
4
/
1
0
0
m
l
resp
ectiv
ely wh
ile
wat
e
r sam
p
l
e
s
fr
om
t
h
e cove
r
e
d
buc
ket
s
i
n
t
r
od
uce
d
was
10
.0
0±
3.
9
4
/
1
00m
l
.
Th
e m
ean t
o
t
a
l
vi
abl
e
co
u
n
t
o
f
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
06
IJPHS
Vol. 3, No. 4, D
ecem
ber 2014
:
253 – 258
25
6
w
a
ter
sam
p
le f
r
o
m
sp
r
i
ng
s an
d r
e
g
u
l
ar
stor
ag
e co
n
t
ain
e
r
s
w
a
s 23
750
.0
0±
56
78
.90
cfu
/
ml and
1
490
0.00±
1354
6.51
cf
u
/
m
l
r
e
sp
ectiv
ely while th
at o
f
cover
e
d
bu
ck
ets
w
a
s 1224
7.00±
810
6.34
cfu
/
ml. Th
e
to
tal co
lifo
r
m
co
un
t of water sa
m
p
le fro
m
sp
ri
n
g
s
and
regu
lar storage con
t
ain
e
rs
was
18
500
±70
4
7
.
46
cfu
/
ml
an
d
8
938
.0
0±
72
47
.52
cf
u
/
m
l
r
e
sp
ectiv
ely wh
ile sa
m
p
les f
r
o
m
th
e co
v
e
red
bu
ck
ets w
e
r
e
7
903
.0
0±7
5
6
1
.51
cfu/m
l
.
Th
e To
tal co
lifo
r
m
co
un
t/1
00ml o
f
water sam
p
les fro
m
spr
i
ngs a
n
d re
g
u
l
a
r st
o
r
age
co
nt
ai
ners i
n
al
l
th
e co
mm
u
n
ities in
t
h
e secon
d
week was
1
8
.00±4.00
/100
m
l
an
d
1
2
.77
±
4
.
23
/10
0
m
l wh
ile sam
p
les fro
m
cove
re
d b
u
c
k
e
t
s wi
t
h
t
a
ps co
nt
ai
ners
was
8
.
5
1
±
4
.
1
6/
1
00m
l
.
The t
o
t
a
l
vi
abl
e
co
unt
of
wat
e
r sam
p
l
e
s fr
o
m
spri
ngs
an
d
re
g
u
l
a
r st
ora
g
e c
o
nt
ai
ners
ha
d m
ean
of
2
3
7
5
0
.
0
0±
5
6
7
8
.
9
0 cf
u/
m
l
and
13
3
5
0
.
00
±
1
0
9
8
8
.
7
0
c
f
u/
m
l
r
e
sp
ectiv
ely
wh
ile sam
p
les f
r
o
m
co
v
e
r
e
d buck
e
ts
w
ith
tap
s
con
t
ain
e
rs
w
a
s 111
12
.00
±
842
4.72 cfu
/
ml. Th
e
to
tal co
lif
o
r
m
co
un
t of
sam
p
l
e
s f
r
o
m
sp
r
i
n
g
s an
d
r
e
gu
lar
sto
r
ag
e con
t
ainer
s
h
a
d
a m
e
a
n
of
18
500
±704
7.46
cfu/
m
l
and 942
5±
8
9
2
4
.
8
8 cfu/
m
l
respect
i
v
el
y
whi
l
e
sam
p
l
e
s from
covere
d
buc
ket
s
wi
t
h
t
a
ps ha
d a
m
e
an t
o
t
a
l
co
liform
co
u
n
t o
f
10
244
.0
0± 75
58
.22
cfu
/
ml. A statis
tically
sig
n
i
fican
t asso
ciation
was
o
b
s
erved
in
com
p
ari
ng t
h
e m
ean Tot
a
l
C
o
l
i
f
orm
C
ount
o
f
wat
e
r sam
p
l
e
s fr
om
regul
ar
st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
n
e
rs, c
ove
red
b
u
c
ket
s
and c
ove
re
d b
u
cket
s
wi
t
h
t
a
ps. T
w
o
of t
h
e ho
use
hol
d r
e
gul
a
r
st
ora
g
e
cont
ai
ne
r wa
s fo
un
d t
o
co
nt
ai
n
Eschericia coli
.
Tab
l
e
3
.
C
o
m
p
arison
o
f
th
e B
acterio
log
i
cal q
u
a
lity of
Water Sam
p
les from
sp
rin
g
s
, Regu
lar
Sto
r
ag
e
C
ont
ai
ne
rs,
C
o
vere
d
Ke
gs a
n
d C
ove
red
Ke
g
s
wi
t
h
Tap
s
i
n
Al
l
C
o
m
m
uni
t
i
es o
v
er
2
wee
k
s
P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r W
e
ek
1
Wee
k
2
p value
Spr
i
ngs
Regular
storage
container
s
Cover
e
d
buckets
Cover
e
d
buckets
with taps
Spr
i
ng
Regular
storage
container
s
Cover
e
d
buckets
Cover
e
d
buckets
with taps
Mean Total
Coliform
Count
/100
m
l
18.
00±4.
12.
25±4.
8
6.
94±2.
7
6.
94±2.
7
18.
00±
4.
0
11.
92±4.
3
7.
33±3.
6
7.
33±3.
6
P=0.
34
Mean Total
Viable Count of
W
a
ter
(c
fu/m
l)
2375
0.
00
±5678.
9
1227
1.
00±
8340.
1
1063
5.
00
±7953.
1
1063
5.
00±
7953.
1
2375
0.
00
±5678.
9
1246
3.
00±
6704.
8
1120
39.
0
0±826
1.
9
1120
39.
00
±8261.
9
P=0.
00
Total Coliform
Count (
c
fu/m
l)
1850
0±
7047.
4
6
7708.
0
0
±8
712.
26
8364.
0
0
±
6944.
4
1
8364.
0
0
±6
944.
41
1850
0±70
47.
46
8371.
0
0
±6
044.
22
8334.
0
0
±
6695.
2
4
8334.
0
0
±
6695.
2
4
P=0.
02
Tabl
e 3 a
b
ove
hi
g
h
l
i
ght
s
res
u
l
t
s
of t
e
st
of
w
a
t
e
r sam
p
l
e
s from
spri
ng
s an
d
reg
u
l
a
r st
ora
g
e cont
ai
ne
rs
as well as cov
e
red
k
e
g
s
with
or withou
t
tap
s
.
In
th
e first
week, t
h
e m
ean
to
tal co
lifo
r
m
co
un
t of
18
.0
0
±
4
.
0
0
/
1
0
0
m
l
and 12
.2
5±
4.
8
8
/
1
00m
l respect
i
v
el
y
were
reco
r
d
ed
fo
r sp
ri
n
g
s
and
re
gul
ar
s
t
ora
g
e
cont
ai
ne
rs
w
h
i
l
e
wat
e
r
sam
p
l
e
s fr
om
cove
red
ke
gs
ha
d a m
ean
of
6
.
9
4
±
2
.
7
6/
1
00m
l
.
Sam
p
les co
llected
in
th
e secon
d
week
ind
i
cated
th
at water
sam
p
les fro
m
sp
ri
n
g
s
and
regu
lar st
o
r
ag
e
co
n
t
ain
e
rs i
n
all th
e commu
n
ities h
a
d
a m
ean
to
tal co
lifo
r
m cou
n
t
o
f
18
.0
0±4
.
0
0
/
1
00ml and
1
1
.92±
4.31
/100
m
l
r
e
sp
ectiv
ely w
h
ile sam
p
les f
r
o
m
t
h
e cov
e
r
e
d
keg
s
w
ith
taps h
a
d
a m
e
an
of
7.
33
±
3
.
69/
10
0
m
l
.
There wa
s a st
at
i
s
t
i
cally
si
gni
fi
cant a
ssociation
bet
w
een t
h
e m
e
a
n
s of To
tal Co
liform
C
o
u
n
t
of
wat
e
r
sam
p
l
e
s from
spri
ngs
, re
gul
a
r
st
ora
g
e co
nt
a
i
ners, c
ove
re
d keg
s
an
d co
ver
e
d ke
gs wi
t
h
t
a
ps. A
st
at
i
s
t
i
call
y
si
gni
fi
cant
ass
o
ci
at
i
on was al
so
obs
er
ved i
n
c
o
m
p
ari
ng t
h
e m
ean Tot
a
l
C
o
l
i
f
o
r
m
C
ount
of
wat
e
r
sam
p
l
e
s from
spri
ngs
,
reg
u
l
a
r
st
ora
g
e c
ont
ai
n
e
rs, c
o
vere
d
ke
gs a
n
d c
ove
red
ke
gs
wi
t
h
t
a
ps
.
Th
e pH
o
f
wat
e
r is an
im
p
o
r
tan
t
factor in
its q
u
a
lity with
wid
e
fl
u
c
tu
ation
s
in
o
p
tim
u
m
p
H
rang
es
leading to a
n
increase
or de
crease in
th
e t
o
xicity o
f
p
o
i
sons in
water bod
ies [7
].
Th
e m
ean
pH
v
a
lu
es
fo
r t
h
e
spri
ng s
o
u
r
ce
had
val
u
es l
o
w
e
r t
h
an
6.
5 rec
o
m
m
e
nded
by
t
h
e
W
H
O. T
h
e aci
di
c nat
u
re
of t
h
e sam
p
l
e
s agrees
with
th
e assertio
n th
at th
e pH
ch
ang
e
s in
wat
e
r
q
u
a
lity m
a
y b
e
as a resu
lt
of in
trod
u
c
tion
o
f
con
t
am
in
an
ts [5
].
The
ge
neral
l
y
l
o
w
p
H
val
u
es
obt
ai
ne
d
i
n
t
h
e
wat
e
r
sam
p
l
e
s m
i
ght
al
so
be
due
t
o
t
h
e
hi
g
h
l
e
vel
s
of
f
r
ee
C
O
2
,
in
th
e
water
sam
p
les, wh
ich
m
a
y co
n
s
eq
u
e
n
tly affe
ct the
bacterial counts
[4
].
The m
ean electrical
con
d
u
ct
i
v
i
t
y
of
sp
ri
n
g
s a
n
d
h
ous
eh
ol
d
re
gul
ar st
o
r
ag
e co
nt
ai
ners
wer
e
wi
t
h
i
n
t
h
e
WH
O
gui
del
i
n
e
whi
c
h i
s
i
n
co
nfo
r
m
i
t
y
w
ith
an
o
t
h
e
r
study in
N
i
g
e
r
i
a
[8
]. Th
e m
ean
alk
a
lin
ity f
o
r
b
o
t
h
sp
r
i
n
g
s
an
d hou
seho
l
d
r
e
gu
lar
sto
r
ag
e con
t
ai
n
e
rs
were within
th
e
WHO gu
id
elin
e
for
dr
i
nki
n
g
. M
e
a
n
al
kal
i
n
i
t
y
of d
r
i
nki
n
g
wat
e
r
r
e
fl
ect
s
t
h
e prese
n
ce o
f
bi
car
b
onat
e
i
o
n whi
c
h
provides buffe
r
ing ac
tion a
g
ainst
acidi
c effects
[9].
The m
ean c
h
loride
l
e
vel
s
i
n
t
h
e s
p
ri
ngs
an
d
re
g
u
l
a
r st
ora
g
e
co
nt
ai
ners
were
with
in th
e
WHO p
e
rm
issib
l
e li
m
it wh
ich
i
m
p
lies
t
h
at
cont
am
i
n
at
i
on was m
i
nim
a
l
.
Presence
of c
h
l
o
ri
de m
a
y
be an i
ndi
ca
t
i
on o
f
p
o
l
l
u
t
i
on
fr
om
sea w
a
t
e
r o
r
in
du
str
i
al and
d
o
m
estic w
a
stes. Th
e m
ean
To
tal D
i
sso
l
v
ed
So
lid
s v
a
l
u
es f
o
r
bo
th
sp
r
i
ng
(1
98
.00
±
10
3.40
)
an
d
reg
u
l
a
r
st
ora
g
e
co
nt
ai
ners
(
1
9
6
.
0
0
±
10
7.
2
7
)
were
al
so
wi
t
h
i
n
t
h
e
WH
O
p
e
rm
i
ssi
bl
e l
i
m
i
t
.
A
h
ous
eh
ol
d
wat
e
r
q
u
a
lity surv
ey
b
y
research
ers
in
Acco
m
ack
an
d No
rt
h
a
m
p
to
n
co
un
ties in
Virg
in
ia rev
eal
ed
th
at av
erag
e TDS
co
n
c
en
tration
s
were
27
5 and
291
m
g
/l resp
ectiv
ely for
raw and
tap
water
g
r
ou
p
s
[10
]
. Th
e m
e
a
n
to
tal
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
PH
S I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
0
6
Effect o
f
S
t
orag
e C
o
n
t
a
i
n
e
rs
o
n
Qua
lity o
f
Hou
s
eh
o
l
d
Dri
n
king
Wa
ter in .... (Ol
a
n
r
ew
a
j
u
On
i
g
bog
i)
25
7
har
d
ness of bot
h
s
p
ri
n
g
s (7
2.
5
0
±
9
.
5
7)
a
nd h
o
u
se
hol
d
st
o
r
ag
e
cont
ai
ners (6
4.
88
±
1
5
.
0
3
) w
e
re
wi
t
h
i
n
t
h
e
WH
O
standa
rd of drinki
ng water
a
n
d
could be
clas
sified as m
oderately soft wate
r. T
h
e conce
n
tration of trace
metals
i
n
sp
ri
n
g
s a
n
d
ho
use
h
ol
d a
n
d
reg
u
l
a
r st
ora
g
e
co
nt
ai
ners
wa
s l
o
w
f
o
r al
l
t
h
e m
e
t
a
l
i
ons (
C
adm
i
u
m
, Iron
,
Lea
d
and Manga
n
es
e). All the sources were sa
fe
from
excessi
ve conce
n
tration of all th
e trace
m
e
ta
ls since they
were all b
e
low
th
e
WHO lim
i
t
.
Wat
e
r sam
p
l
e
s fr
om
t
h
e spri
ngs
an
d
wat
e
r
st
ore
d
i
n
h
o
u
s
e
hol
d r
e
g
u
l
a
r
st
ora
g
e c
ont
ai
ners
we
re
o
f
poor bacteri
o
logical quality
. The total coli
form
count/
100m
l
in the spring
water sam
p
le ranged
from
12
t
o
20/
10
0 m
l
whi
l
e
t
h
at
of reg
u
l
ar st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
ners
ran
g
e
d
fr
om
6 t
o
20/
1
00m
l
.
No
n
e
of t
h
e s
p
ri
n
g
wat
e
r
sam
p
les sa
tisfied
WHO standard
fo
r
d
r
ink
i
ng
water qu
ality wh
ile less th
an
ten
p
e
rcen
t o
f
th
e sam
p
les fro
m
t
h
e h
o
u
se
hol
d
st
ora
g
e c
ont
ai
n
e
r sat
i
s
fi
e
d
W
H
O
st
an
dar
d
o
f
<
10c
fu/
1
0
0
m
l
. Thi
s
fi
n
d
i
n
g
i
s
i
n
acc
or
da
nc
e wi
t
h
th
e find
ing
in a si
milar stu
d
y
th
at
m
a
j
o
rity o
f
water su
pp
lies in
Ib
ad
an
were co
nta
m
in
ated
an
d th
at
cont
am
i
n
at
i
on was hi
ghe
r at
poi
nt
of
use [
5
]
.
The col
i
f
or
m
count
o
f
s
p
r
i
ng
wat
e
r sam
p
l
e
s was si
gni
f
i
cant
l
y
hi
g
h
er t
h
a
n
t
h
at
of sam
p
l
e
s from
regul
ar st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
ne
rs. T
h
i
s
co
ul
d
be asso
ci
at
ed wi
t
h
m
e
t
hod o
f
wat
e
r
col
l
ect
i
on an
d
st
orage
.
Thi
s
fi
n
d
i
n
g agree
s
wi
t
h
a survey
con
duct
e
d i
n
In
di
a whi
c
h concl
ude
d m
e
t
h
od
o
f
co
llectio
n
of water as well as sto
r
ag
e cond
itio
n
s
affects th
e q
u
a
lity o
f
water.
11
The
prese
n
ce of coliform
g
r
ou
p
of org
a
nis
m
s in
th
e water sa
m
p
les g
e
n
e
rally su
gg
est
s
th
at a certain
selectio
n
o
f
water
m
a
y h
a
v
e
b
een
contam
inated with faecal
m
a
tter
from
either hum
a
n or ani
m
al origin.
Our study looked at the coliform
index
which ot
her st
udies
have c
o
nside
r
e
d
as an indicator
of faecal
pollution in water. The total and faecal
col
i
form
s have been use
d
indic
a
tor of faecal contam
ination and a
s
avai
l
a
bl
e t
e
st
i
ng t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
gy
[1
2]
. The
p
r
esence
of c
o
l
i
f
orm
gro
up
and
E.
c
o
li
is
due to
faec
al or
en
v
i
ron
m
en
tal
co
n
t
am
in
atio
n an
d is an
i
n
dicatio
n
of th
e
lik
ely p
r
esen
ce o
f
o
t
h
e
r
p
a
th
og
en
ic b
acteria lik
e
Sal
mo
nel
l
a
s
p
p,
Shi
gel
l
a
sp
p
and
St
rept
oco
ccus s
p
p
whi
c
h
are
ca
pabl
e of
ca
usi
n
g ver
y
seri
ous di
sea
s
es. A
study conducte
d in Ibada
n
als
o
noted that the greatest da
n
g
er asso
ciated
with
d
r
ink
i
ng
water is co
n
t
am
in
atio
n
by
h
u
m
a
n faec
es [
14]
.
Eschericia c
o
l
i
was f
o
u
n
d
i
n
fi
ve pe
rce
n
t
o
f
wat
e
r sam
p
l
e
s fr
om
regul
ar
st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
ners
w
h
i
l
e
n
o
n
e
w
a
s f
ound
in
th
e spr
i
ng so
ur
ce w
a
ter
sam
p
les. Th
is
co
n
t
am
in
atio
n
co
u
l
d
b
e
as a resu
lt o
f
p
a
r
ticip
an
ts
di
p
p
i
n
g t
h
ei
r h
a
nd
s i
n
si
de wa
t
e
r st
ore
d
i
n
t
h
ei
r ho
use
hol
d st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
ne
rs d
u
ri
n
g
col
l
e
ct
i
on especi
al
l
y
aft
e
r
u
s
ing
a to
ilet. Th
is find
ing
ag
rees
with
a si
m
ilar stu
d
y
wh
ich
fo
und
th
at d
i
pp
ing
h
a
n
d
in
t
o
water
led
to
cont
am
i
n
at
i
on [1
1]
.
C
o
m
p
ari
ng s
p
r
i
ng
wat
e
r s
o
ur
ce wi
t
h
t
h
e
di
f
f
ere
n
t
st
o
r
ag
e co
n
t
ain
e
rs d
i
stribu
ted
to
th
e p
a
rticip
an
ts,
cont
am
i
n
at
i
o
n
was hi
g
h
er a
t
t
h
e source a
nd t
h
i
s
a
g
rees
wi
t
h
one
of
t
h
e ob
ser
v
at
i
o
nal
st
udi
es by
ot
her
research
ers th
at
m
ean
co
liform lev
e
ls were sub
s
tan
tia
lly h
i
gh
er i
n
water sources th
an in
hou
seho
ld
water
st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
ners
[
15]
.
C
o
m
p
ari
ng wat
e
r
sam
p
l
e
s from
cove
re
d b
u
c
k
et
s wi
t
h
o
u
t
t
a
p
s
an
d co
vere
d
buc
ket
s
wi
t
h
t
a
ps, c
o
nt
am
i
n
at
i
on was
si
gni
fi
ca
nt
l
y
hi
ghe
r i
n
sam
p
l
e
s fr
om
covered
buc
ket
s
wi
t
h
o
u
t
t
a
p. It
co
ul
d al
so
be as a resul
t
of m
e
t
hod o
f
col
l
ect
i
on. T
h
e
t
y
pe of
m
e
di
a used i
n
c
o
l
l
ect
i
ng wat
e
r f
r
o
m
t
h
e dri
nki
ng
wat
e
r
st
ora
g
e co
nt
ai
n
e
r m
i
ght
have
been c
o
nt
am
i
n
at
ed. Al
s
o
,
han
d
s co
ul
d
be
di
ppe
d i
n
t
o
t
h
e c
ont
ai
ne
rs
du
ri
n
g
t
h
e
pr
ocess
of col
l
ect
i
on. R
e
sear
chers
have
o
b
s
erve
d t
h
at
pe
opl
e ge
ne
ral
l
y
t
ook st
ore
d
w
a
t
e
r fr
om
t
h
e [o
pe
n]
buc
ket
by
di
p
p
i
n
g t
hus
re
su
l
t
i
ng i
n
co
nt
a
m
i
n
at
i
on
of
ot
her
w
i
s
e sa
fe
wat
e
r
by
t
h
ei
r
i
n
fect
e
d
fi
n
g
e
r
s
[1
6]
.
Water sam
p
les d
r
awn
fro
m
th
e v
e
ssels wit
h
sp
igo
t
s were the least co
n
t
am
i
n
ated
o
f
all stored
water sam
p
les in
cove
re
d b
u
c
k
e
t
s, su
ggest
i
n
g
t
h
at
wat
e
r
han
d
l
i
ng
wi
t
h
in
t
h
e ho
m
e
w
a
s th
e m
a
j
o
r
sour
ce of
stor
ed
w
a
ter
cont
am
i
n
at
i
on.
C
o
m
p
ari
ng
w
a
t
e
r sam
p
l
e
s fr
om
covere
d ke
gs
wi
t
h
o
u
t
t
a
ps a
nd
cove
re
d ke
gs
wi
t
h
t
a
ps
,
co
n
t
am
in
atio
n
was sign
ificantly h
i
g
h
e
r in
water sam
p
le
s from
covere
d
kegs wi
t
h
t
a
p
s
. Thi
s
co
ul
d
be as a
resul
t
o
f
car
el
ess ha
ndl
i
n
g a
n
d u
n
h
y
g
i
e
ni
c
p
r
act
i
ces by
t
h
e
part
i
c
i
p
a
n
t
s
.
A m
i
crobi
ol
o
g
i
cal
survey
of
wat
e
r
st
ore
d
i
n
Te
xa
s h
o
m
e
s wi
t
h
o
u
t
m
uni
ci
pal
w
a
t
e
r co
n
n
ec
tion
s
foun
d co
lifo
r
m
b
acteria si
g
n
i
fican
tly less often
in
sto
r
ag
e v
e
ssels with
o
p
e
n
i
n
g
s
less th
an
10
cm in
d
i
a
m
et
er, fro
m
wh
ich water was typically
p
o
u
r
ed
, th
an
i
n
cont
ai
ne
rs
wi
t
h
wi
de
r
ope
ni
n
g
s,
i
n
t
o
w
h
i
c
h
han
d
s
an
d
di
p
p
i
ng
ut
e
n
si
l
s
co
ul
d m
o
re e
a
si
l
y
be i
n
t
r
o
d
u
ce
d
[1
7]
.
The i
n
t
e
r
v
e
n
t
i
on
vessel
s
wer
e
gene
ral
l
y
pre
f
er
red
ove
r ot
h
e
r co
nt
ai
ner
s
u
s
ed i
n
wat
e
r st
ora
g
e i
n
t
h
e
h
o
m
e
s.
Howe
ver,
no feacal coliforms or
E. co
li
wa
s det
ect
ed
i
n
st
ore
d
wat
e
r
sa
m
p
l
e
s from
ho
use
hol
ds t
h
at
u
s
ed t
h
e
i
n
t
e
rve
n
t
i
o
n co
nt
ai
ners
. The s
i
gni
fi
ca
nt
di
ffe
rence see
n
i
n
cont
am
i
n
at
i
on l
e
vel
s
bet
w
ee
n
ho
use
h
ol
ds w
h
o di
p
an
d hou
seho
l
d
s th
at pou
r w
a
t
e
r
ou
t
o
f
th
e st
o
r
ag
e con
t
ain
e
r
cou
l
d b
e
attrib
u
t
ed
to th
e
fact th
at serv
ing
u
t
en
sils
coul
d not be pl
aced
through
t
h
e ope
ning of narrow-m
outhed vessels.
Th
e u
s
e of wat
e
r v
e
ssels with n
a
rrow o
p
e
n
i
ng
s h
a
s prev
iously b
een
sh
own
to
i
m
p
r
ov
e water qu
ality
in
th
e
ho
m
e
, p
r
ob
ab
ly, b
y
h
i
n
d
e
ring
t
h
e in
t
r
odu
ctio
n of
han
d
s in
t
o
th
e
v
e
ssel
[16
]
,[18]. In add
itio
n to
th
e
nar
r
o
w
m
out
h
and
spi
got
, t
h
e s
p
eci
al
ves
s
el
had a
scr
e
w-
o
n
l
i
d
,
gi
vi
n
g
f
u
rt
her
b
e
nefi
t
s
o
f
hi
n
d
eri
n
g
contam
ination
in the t
r
eated
drinking
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I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
06
IJPHS
Vol. 3, No. 4, D
ecem
ber 2014
:
253 – 258
25
8
4.
CO
NCL
USI
O
N
Th
e stud
y assessed
th
e effect o
f
d
i
fferen
t ty
p
e
s of
sto
r
ag
e co
n
t
ain
e
rs on
d
r
i
n
k
i
n
g
water q
u
a
lity in
d
i
fferen
t
co
mm
u
n
ities in
Ib
ad
an. Th
e stud
y
sho
w
ed
th
at
drink
i
ng
water so
m
e
t
i
m
es g
e
ts co
n
t
am
in
ated
d
u
ring
sto
r
ag
e in househo
l
d
v
e
ssels, and
th
at im
p
r
o
v
e
m
e
n
t
in
the d
e
sign
o
f
hou
seh
o
l
d
w
a
ter
sto
r
ag
e
v
e
ssels can
red
u
ce t
h
i
s
ri
s
k
.
Safe
wat
e
r
s
t
ora
g
e v
e
ssel
s
al
one ca
n
not
m
a
ke wat
e
r
p
o
t
abl
e
, b
u
t
ca
n
hel
p
t
o
prese
r
v
e
wat
e
r
q
u
a
lity after treat
m
e
n
t
. Th
erefore th
ere sho
u
l
d
be an
ade
q
u
a
te trai
n
i
ng
of
p
a
rticip
an
ts on
water sto
r
ag
e,
h
a
nd
ling
and
treatm
e
n
t
to
en
su
re im
p
r
ov
emen
t in
water q
u
a
lity. In
terv
en
tion
s
aim
e
d
at p
r
ov
id
i
ng sto
r
ag
e
co
n
t
ain
e
rs and
treat
m
e
n
t
m
a
te
rials esp
ecially in
th
e poo
r reso
urce setting
s
sh
ou
l
d
b
e
en
cou
r
ag
ed
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