Int
ern
at
i
onal
Journ
al of
P
u
bli
c Hea
lt
h S
c
ie
nce (IJPH
S)
Vo
l.
7
, No
.
2
, Jun
e
201
8
, pp.
114
~
119
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8806
,
DOI: 10
.11
591/ij
phs
.
v7
i
2.
1
13
87
114
Journ
al h
om
e
page
:
https:
//
ww
w.i
aesco
re
.c
om
/j
our
nals/
ind
ex.
php/IJP
H
S
D
ie
t
ary
Nutri
ent
Intake a
nd
Obesity P
reva
lence
among
Nati
ve
Americ
an
Adoles
ce
nts
Ha
nc
hu D
ai
,
Rand
y
S
ong,
Ma
r
garet
Bar
th
, Sh
as
h
a
Z
heng
Coll
ege of
Hea
l
t
h
Scie
n
ce,
Ca
li
f
ornia
B
apt
ist
Univer
sit
y
,
Ca
li
for
nia
,
Unit
ed
Sta
te
of
Am
eri
c
a
Art
ic
le
In
f
o
ABSTR
A
CT
Art
ic
le
history:
Re
cei
ved
Feb
2
, 2
01
8
Re
vised
Ma
y
15
, 2
01
8
Accepte
d
J
un
8
, 2
01
8
The
pr
evale
nc
e
of
obesity
amon
g
adolesce
n
t
m
i
nority
popu
la
t
io
ns
has
be
en
long
r
ec
ogn
iz
ed
,
bu
t
littl
e
rese
arc
h
has
be
en
done
on
Na
ti
ve
Am
eri
c
ans
adol
esc
ent
s.
Us
i
ng
ant
hropom
et
r
ic
m
ea
surem
ent
s
and
dietar
y
asse
ss
m
ent
s,
the
findi
ngs
withi
n
each
stud
y
ha
ve
show
n
to
o
bta
in
base
l
ine
m
ea
sures
t
o
det
ermine
th
e pr
eva
l
enc
e
of
obes
ity
wi
thi
n
the
Sherm
an Indi
an Hi
gh
School’s
Nati
ve
Am
eri
c
a
n
adolesce
n
t
pop
ula
ti
on
.
Dat
a
of
ea
ch
assess
m
ent
appe
ar
to
b
e
of
use
for
pre
d
ic
ti
ng
obesity
a
nd
cre
a
ti
ng
eff
ec
t
ive
futur
e
in
te
rve
n
ti
o
ns.
Com
pil
ing
data
using
the
Harva
r
d
School
of
Publ
ic
He
al
th
Youth/
Adolesc
en
t
Questionna
ir
e
(HS
PH
Y
AQ
),
a
sem
i
-
quan
ti
tative
food
fre
que
n
c
y
questi
onnaire
al
l
owed
significant
data
to
be
found
bet
we
en
norm
al
and
ob
es
e
weight
stud
ent
s.
Util
izing
each
f
i
nding
a
ll
ows
m
ore
eff
ectiv
e
wa
y
s
of
ta
rg
et
ing
and
rev
ersing
the
in
cl
in
ing
r
at
e
of
ob
esity
among
Nati
v
e
Am
eri
ca
n
adol
esc
ent
s.
Res
ult
s
show
th
at
an
ti
oxida
n
ts
be
ing
exa
m
ine
d
on
suc
h
as
v
it
ami
n
E
and
l
y
cope
n
e
ar
e
b
ene
f
ic
i
al
i
n
lower
ing
the
obesity
r
ate
among
Nati
v
e
A
m
eri
ca
n
adol
e
sce
nts.
Le
v
el
s
o
f
fibe
r
,
thi
amin
and
fol
at
e
consu
m
pti
on
was
signifi
c
ant
l
y
lo
wer
among
the
obese
popul
at
i
on
in
Sherm
an
India
n
High
School’s
Nati
v
e
Am
eri
ca
n
adol
es
ce
nts.
Moreove
r,
dietar
y
m
in
eral
int
ak
e
wa
s
show
n
to
b
e
low
er
among
obese
Nati
ve
A
m
eri
c
a
n
ado
le
sc
ent
s
co
m
par
ing
with
the
norm
al
weig
ht
group
.
The
r
e
sults
suggested
t
hat
dietar
y
cons
um
pti
on
of
the
se
nut
rie
n
ts
m
ight
cor
relate
an
d
pre
di
ct
ob
esity
and
l
ea
d
to
th
e
d
eve
lopmen
t
of
eff
ective
in
tervent
ions
for
N
at
iv
e
Am
erica
ns
.
Thi
s
stud
y
a
ls
o
f
ound
the
eff
ects
of
tot
a
l
fibe
r
and
v
it
ami
n
B
in
diets
wi
th
li
f
est
y
l
e
in
te
r
vent
ion
in
pre
dia
b
et
i
c
adu
lts
,
show
ing
tha
t
tot
al
fib
er
in
ta
ke
among
the
nor
m
al
weigh
t
student
s
is
sign
i
fic
an
tly
h
ighe
r
t
han
obese
stude
nts,
ind
ic
a
ti
ng
t
hat
f
ibe
r
and
vit
amin
profil
e
coul
d
be
impor
ta
nt
de
te
rm
ina
n
t
s
of
the
ef
fect
of
di
et
ar
y
int
erv
ent
ion
.
Ke
yw
or
d:
N
at
ive
A
m
eric
an
a
do
le
sce
nts
Nu
t
riti
on
i
ntak
e
Ob
esi
ty
Copyright
©
201
8
Instit
ut
e
o
f Ad
vanc
ed
Engi
n
ee
r
ing
and
S
cienc
e
.
Al
l
rights re
serv
ed
.
Corres
pond
in
g
Aut
h
or
:
Sh
as
ha
Z
he
ng,
Dep
a
rtm
ent o
f Pu
bic H
eal
th
S
ci
ences
,
Ca
li
fo
r
nia Bap
ti
st Un
ive
rsity
,
8432 Ma
gnolia A
ve,
Ri
ver
si
de
, CA,
92504,
Un
it
ed
Stat
es
of A
m
erica
.
Em
a
il
: szhen
g@ca
lba
ptist
.edu
1.
INTROD
U
CTIO
N
Ob
esi
ty
is
a
pa
nd
em
ic
that
has
so
a
re
d
i
n
recent
ye
ars.
I
n
t
he
U
.S.
,
ob
esi
ty
has
creat
ed
num
ero
us
pro
blem
s
that
ha
ve
le
d
to
m
a
ny
healt
h
c
onc
ern
s
[
1]
.
The
se
healt
h
ris
ks
in
cl
ud
e
dia
betes
m
el
l
it
us
,
hypert
ensio
n,
card
i
ov
asc
ular
disease
(C
V
D)
,
str
oke,
an
d
s
om
e
form
s
of
ca
nce
r
w
hich
are
pr
e
ve
ntable
by
di
et
[
2]
.
Dem
on
strat
i
ng
sound
nu
trit
io
n
an
d
e
du
c
at
io
n
can
dec
rease
the
incli
ning
ra
te
of
ob
esi
ty
.
A
ccordin
g
to
dat
a
from
the
Nati
on
al
Healt
h
I
nterv
i
ew
Surv
ey
in
2015,
30.
4%
of
U
.S.
a
du
lt
s
age
d
20
an
d
ov
e
r
we
re
obe
se.
T
his
conditi
on
is
da
m
aging
to
ward
s
the
a
ff
ect
e
d
i
nd
i
viduals
a
nd
al
so
ge
ner
at
es
m
or
e
m
edical
c
os
ts
for
the
ob
e
se
popula
ti
on
.
T
he
est
i
m
at
ed
an
nu
al
cost
of
obesi
ty
in
the
U
.
S.
was
$190.
2
bill
ion
i
n
2017
[
3]
.
T
he
healt
h
s
hare
of
gr
os
s
dom
e
sti
c
pro
du
ct
(
GDP)
wa
s
e
xpect
ed
to
reach
10.
5
pe
rcen
t
in
2017.
Ob
esi
t
y
al
so
stu
nt
s
he
al
thy
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IJPHS
IS
S
N: 22
52
-
8806
Diet
ar
y N
utrient I
nta
ke
an
d Ob
esi
ty
P
reval
ence in
Nativ
e
America
n Ad
ol
escents
(
H
anch
u Da
i
)
115
beh
a
vior
patte
r
ns
w
hic
h
af
fec
ts
ph
ysi
cal
an
d
em
otion
al
he
al
th.
For
a
do
l
escents,
th
ei
r
dieta
ry
ha
bits
will
be
carried
on
into
adu
lt
ho
od,
w
hi
ch
m
ake
their
grow
i
ng
ye
ar’
s
cru
ci
al
pe
rio
ds
for
est
ablishi
ng
healt
hy
be
ha
viors
[4]
.
A
ppr
ox
im
at
el
y
17
%
of
c
hildr
e
n
a
nd
a
dole
scents
age
d
2
-
19
ye
ars
are
ob
e
se
a
nd
this
ph
e
nom
eno
n
is
m
or
e
com
m
on
am
on
g
ce
rtai
n
racial
and
et
hnic
gro
up
s;
no
n
-
Hisp
a
nic
wh
it
e,
no
n
-
Hisp
a
nic
black
,
a
nd
His
pa
nic
adu
lt
s
and yo
uth
ha
ve
a h
i
gh
e
r pr
e
va
le
nce to
obese
than othe
r pe
ople
gr
oups
[5
].
In
par
ti
c
ular,
t
he
rate
of
obesi
t
y
is
rem
a
ining
high
am
on
g
Na
ti
ve
Am
ericans,
at
31.
2%.
In
c
omm
un
it
ie
s
su
r
veyed
by
t
he
Ra
ci
al
a
nd
E
thn
ic
A
ppr
oac
hes
to
Com
m
un
it
y
Healt
h
(REACH
)
20
10
Ri
sk
Fact
or
S
urvey,
m
or
e
than
one
-
third
of
US
Na
ti
ve
Am
erican
m
en
a
nd
wo
m
en
we
re
obese
wh
e
reas
a
pproxim
a
te
ly
on
e
-
f
ifth
of
adu
lt
s
we
re
ob
ese
on
the
national
le
vel
[6
]
.
As
c
hild
hood
a
nd
a
dole
sc
ent
ob
e
sit
y
rates
ha
ve
been
cl
os
el
y
ob
s
er
ved,
rece
nt r
e
ports am
on
g Nati
ve
A
m
erican a
dole
sce
nts
hav
e
b
ee
n of i
nterest.
In
t
he
la
st
te
n
ye
ars,
US
popula
ti
on
-
base
d
s
urveys
hav
e
show
n
t
hat
ad
ole
scents
f
ai
l
to
m
eet
dieta
ry
reco
m
m
end
at
ion
s
f
or
ov
e
rall
nu
t
riti
on
al
sta
tus.
F
ood
i
ntake
s
associat
ed
wi
th
healt
hier
die
ts
to
support
nutrit
ion
sta
tus
of
te
n
i
nc
lud
e
hi
gher
intakes
of
f
r
uit
an
d
ve
geta
bles,
w
hich
are
ri
ch
i
n
m
inerals,
m
acro
nutrie
nt
s,
a
nd
antioxi
dan
ts
.
T
he
cu
rr
e
nt
dail
y
reco
m
m
end
at
ion
s
f
or
f
ru
it
a
nd
ve
getables
i
n
the
a
do
le
sce
nt
diet
are
two
c
up
s
of
fruit
and
t
hr
ee
cup
s
of
ve
getables.
H
oweve
r,
le
ss
tha
n
1
i
n
10
ad
olesce
nt
s
m
eet
the
rec
omm
end
ed
fru
it
and
veg
et
a
bles
inta
ke
acco
rd
i
ng
to
The
Thir
d
N
at
ion
al
Healt
h
and
N
utriti
on
Exam
inati
on
S
urvey
(
NHANESI
II)
[7]
. Resea
rc
h
s
hows
a
n
e
stim
at
ed
70%
of all
cance
r
is at
trib
uted
t
o diet
, and diet
s h
ig
h
i
n fat an
d
l
ow
i
n f
ru
it
s
,
veg
et
a
bles,
a
nd
grai
ns
are
a
s
so
ci
at
ed
with
i
ncr
ease
d
risk
of
cance
r
[8
]
.
In
con
t
rast,
Nati
ve
Am
ericans
are
not
include
d
in
nat
ion
al
nutrit
iona
l
m
on
it
or
in
g
syst
e
m
s,
so
inf
or
m
at
ion
is
e
s
pecial
ly
rar
e
c
on
ce
r
ning
obe
sit
y
of
Nati
ve
Am
ericans,
par
ti
cularl
y
ad
olescents
.
I
n
the
pa
st
fe
w
ge
ne
rati
ons
,
it
is
belie
ve
d
that
obesi
ty
a
m
on
g
Am
erican
I
ndia
ns
is
as
so
ci
at
e
d
with
the
relat
ive
a
bunda
nce
of
high
-
fat,
hi
gh
cal
or
ie
s
f
oods
and
t
he
rap
i
d
c
hange
to se
den
ta
ry li
f
est
yl
es [
9]
.
T
he
few
stu
die
s
of
Am
erican
-
Indian
yo
uth
,
there
are
c
orrel
at
ion
s
t
hat
ha
ve
show
n t
hat
over
intake
on
so
m
e
nu
trie
nts,
inclu
di
ng
sat
ur
at
e
d
fats
,
tra
ns
fats
as
well
as
f
oods
that
a
re
high
in
s
od
i
um
and
a
dded
su
ga
rs
,
hav
e
pose
d
a
n
increase
d
risk
for
a
dv
e
rse
le
ve
ls
of
seve
ral
c
ard
i
ov
asc
ular
disease’s
ris
k
f
act
or
s
s
uc
h
as
blood
li
pid
s,
in
su
li
n,
an
d
blood
pr
es
sure
[
9]
.
By
stud
yi
ng
obese
i
nd
i
viduals,
m
ultiv
it
a
m
in
and
m
ineral
su
pple
m
entat
ion
ha
ve
bee
n
f
ound
t
o
reduc
e
fatne
ss
a
nd
i
m
pr
ove
se
rum
l
ipid
prof
il
es,
possibly
t
hro
ugh
increase
d
e
ne
r
gy
e
xp
e
ndit
ur
e
an
d
fat
oxidat
ion
[
10]
.
I
n
a
st
ud
y
of
Na
vajo
c
hild
ren
a
nd
ad
olesce
nts
ra
ng
i
ng
from
12
to
19
ye
ars
of
a
ge,
Fr
e
edm
an
and
his
te
a
m
fo
und
tha
t
Nati
ve
Am
erican
a
do
le
sce
nt
s
in
their
sur
ve
y
had
a
5
-
10m
g/d
L
l
ow
e
r
m
edian
l
evel
of
H
DL
cho
le
ste
r
ol,
an
d
a
30
m
g/d
L
hi
gh
e
r
m
edian
tri
glyc
eride
le
vel
c
om
par
ed
t
o
ge
ner
al
a
dole
scents
in
U
nited
Stat
es;
ov
e
rw
e
igh
t
Nav
a
jo
a
dole
scents
ha
d
a
five
fo
l
d
gr
ea
te
r
ris
k
for
el
evate
d
trigly
ceride
le
vel
s
than
oth
e
r
a
dole
scents
[11]
.
The
relat
io
nsh
ip
betwee
n
li
pi
ds
,
li
po
protei
ns
an
d
blood
pr
ess
ure
and
body
weig
ht
s
ugges
ts
t
hat
the
i
ncr
ease
d
popula
ti
on
hav
i
ng
dia
betes
m
el
li
tus
is
highly
r
el
at
ed
to their
d
ie
t,
w
hich
is
cr
ucial
for
in
div
i
du
al
s
and or
gan
iz
at
ion
s
on f
uture i
nter
ven
ti
on.
It
is
s
uggeste
d
that
m
ineral
s
upplem
entat
ion
durin
g
ad
ole
scence
m
ay
i
m
pro
ve
ph
ysi
cal
gro
w
th
a
nd
dev
el
op
m
ent,
includi
ng
m
us
cl
e
co
ntracti
on,
ne
rv
e
sig
na
l
co
nductio
n
an
d
bone
he
al
th
[
12
]
.
Mo
reover
,
correla
ti
ng
die
ta
ry
m
ineral
intakes
with
ov
erall
ps
yc
hiatri
c
functi
onin
g
i
n
a
du
lt
s,
t
he
r
esults
in
dicat
ed
that
higher
le
vels
of
m
ental
functi
on
ass
oci
at
ed
wi
th
a
hi
gh
e
r
i
ntake
of
m
inerals
[13]
.
This
detai
le
d
a
naly
sis
in
a
cl
inica
ll
y
diagn
ose
d
sam
ple
was
c
on
sist
e
nt
with
pri
or
s
urv
ey
s,
revea
li
ng
an
ass
ociat
ion
betwee
n
highe
r
le
vel
s
of
nu
t
rient
int
akes
a
nd
bette
r
m
ental
health
.
A
stu
dy
bas
ed
on
the
e
ff
e
ct
s
of
total
fi
be
r
diets
with
li
festy
le
interve
ntio
n
i
n
pre
diabeti
c
a
dult
s
al
so
pro
ve
d
t
hata
regular
fi
ber
-
rich
diet,
wh
ic
h
i
nd
ic
at
ed
t
hat
fiber
pro
file
cou
l
d
be
a
n
i
m
po
rtant
deter
m
inant
of
the
eff
ect
of
dieta
r
y
inter
ven
ti
on,
ha
d
a
pr
onou
nced
e
ff
ect
on
glu
c
os
e
regulat
ion
a
nd
resu
lt
ed
i
n
a
sign
i
ficant
fall
in
glyc
ae
m
ia
[1
4]
.
Howev
e
r,
th
e
correla
ti
on
be
tween
these
nutrie
nts
and
a
do
le
sce
nt
s’
he
al
th
is
s
ti
ll
un
de
r
i
nvest
igati
on
.
I
n
our
st
ud
y,
we
assesse
d
t
he
eff
e
ct
s
of
m
ulti
ple
m
ic
ro
nutrie
nts
’
dieta
ry
inta
ke
am
on
g
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ado
le
sce
nts
on
their
obesi
ty
le
vels,
es
pecia
ll
y
fo
r
m
inerals, f
i
ber,
thiam
in,
a
nd folat
e.
2.
RESEA
R
CH MET
HO
D
The
st
ud
y
was
perform
ed
at
S
her
m
an
I
nd
ia
n
High
Sc
hool,
R
iverside
,
Ca
li
f
ornia.
S
her
m
an
I
nd
ia
n
High
School
is
an
off
-
reservat
io
n
boar
ding
high
sc
hool
for
Nati
ve
Am
ericans.
Th
e
stu
dy
po
pu
la
t
ion
co
ns
ist
ed
of
183
m
al
e
and
fem
al
e
Nati
ve
Am
eri
can
a
do
le
sce
nt
s,
14
-
18
ye
ars
of
a
ge,
re
pr
es
e
nting
43
dif
fere
nt
tribes
f
ro
m
acro
s
s
the
Un
it
ed
Stat
es.
We
co
nduc
te
d
a
ba
sel
ine
anth
rop
om
et
ric
m
easur
em
ent
of
he
ig
ht
(cm
),
wei
gh
t
(
kg),
waist
ci
rcu
m
fer
ence
(cm
),
tric
eps
sk
in
-
f
old
m
easur
es,
incl
ud
i
ng
t
ricep
an
d
cal
f
sk
in
-
f
old
m
easu
res
from
the
Nati
ve
Am
erican
stu
de
nts
a
nd
c
om
par
ed
these
data
with
NIH
sta
nd
ard
iz
e
d
protoc
ols
to
asses
s
w
ei
gh
t
cl
assi
ficat
ion
by
body
m
ass
in
di
ces
f
or
our
po
pu
la
ti
on.
O
bes
it
y
rate
withi
n
Nati
ve
Am
erican
a
dole
scents
in
S
her
m
an
I
nd
ia
n
High
Scho
ol
was
cal
cula
te
d
usi
ng
BM
I
(
kg
/m
2
)
an
d
co
m
par
ed
with
NHA
NESII
I
da
ta
.
T
he
c
olle
ct
ion
of
anth
rop
om
et
ric
an
d
dieta
ry
da
ta
was
sc
he
du
l
ed
at
eac
h
of
the
f
our
dorm
ito
ries
f
or
ei
gh
t
weeks,
c
onduc
te
d
by
trai
ned fac
ulty
an
d st
ude
nt int
ern resea
rch
e
rs
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8806
IJPHS
V
ol.
7
,
No.
2
,
J
une
20
18
:
11
4
–
119
116
To
exam
ine
Nati
ve
Am
eric
a
n
a
do
le
sce
nts
’
nu
trie
nts
inta
ke
a
nd
to
eval
uate
the
dif
fe
r
ences
i
n
th
e
intake
le
vels
be
tween
norm
al
a
nd
ob
e
se
wei
gh
t
stu
de
nts
(B
MI),
we
us
e
d
the
Ha
rv
a
r
d
Sc
hool
of
Publi
c
Healt
h
Youth/
Adolesc
ent
Q
uestionn
ai
re
(HSPHY
AQ),
a
sem
i
-
qu
a
ntit
at
ive,
s
el
f
-
adm
inist
ere
d
f
ood
f
requ
ency
qu
e
sti
onnaire
with
a
reas
on
a
ble
abili
ty
to
a
ssess
the
eat
i
ng
hab
it
s
of
olde
r
chil
dr
e
n
a
nd
ad
olescents
ov
er
ti
m
e.
Fo
r
i
nsuring
th
e
validit
y
and
r
el
ia
bili
ty
of
thi
s
instru
m
ent,
the
com
plete
su
rv
ey
s
wer
e
pr
e
par
e
d
f
or
sc
an
ni
ng
by
the
Ha
rvar
d
T
.H
.
Cha
n
Sc
hool
of
P
ub
li
c
Healt
h
Nu
t
riti
on
De
par
tm
ent,
then
the
Da
ta
analy
sis
of
dieta
ry
nu
t
rients inta
ke
w
e
re c
onduct
ed
at
Cal
if
ornia Bapti
st U
nive
rsity
u
sin
g
R
sta
ti
sti
cal
so
ftwar
e
.
3.
RESU
LT
S
A
ND AN
ALYSIS
3.1.
Die
ta
r
y Assessme
nt
The
fir
st
phase
of
the
st
ud
y
was
the
a
nthro
po
m
et
ric
assessm
ent,
wh
ic
h
s
howe
d
that,
a
m
on
g
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ado
l
escents
in
Sh
e
rm
an
In
dia
n
H
igh
Sc
hool,
35
.4
%
of
t
he
m
a
le
s
and
41.
7%
of
t
he
fem
al
e
s
were
cl
assifi
ed
as
obese.
T
he
ob
es
it
y
rate
a
m
on
g
the
Nati
ve
Ame
r
ic
an
stu
de
nts
in
this
stud
y
was
38.
3%
.
T
his
rate
is
double
of
th
e
natio
nal
rate
repor
te
d
for
a
dole
scents.
Pa
rt
of
data
i
n
t
his
stud
y
has
bee
n
publis
hed
ba
s
ed
on
the
res
ults
obta
ined
on
anti
ox
i
dan
ts
,
vitam
in
E
an
d
ly
co
pene,
w
hich
sho
w
ed
the
a
ntio
xida
nt
int
ake
le
ve
l
was
sign
ific
a
ntly
l
ow
e
r
am
on
g
ob
e
se
Nati
ve
Am
erican
adol
escents.
Diet
a
ry
intake
of
a
ntiox
i
dan
t
in
Nati
ve
Am
erican adolesc
ents
wer
e
r
e
corde
d
f
r
om
f
ru
it
s and
ve
getables,
w
hile t
he reso
urces
wer
e
not d
i
ver
se
.
Re
su
lt
s
are
e
xpress
ed
as
m
ean
SEM.
C
o
m
par
isons
be
tween
norm
al
and
obese
groups
wer
e
perform
ed
by
two
-
ta
il
ed
t
-
te
st.
Si
gn
i
ficance
te
sti
ng
was
set
at
p
-
val
ue<0.0
5.
All res
ults
a
re r
ep
ort
ed
in
n
orm
al
or
ob
ese
weig
ht
cl
assifi
cat
io
n.
T
he
vitam
i
n
C
inta
ke
wa
s
202.9
1m
g/d
ay
am
on
gs
t
nor
m
al
weig
ht
st
ud
e
nts
,
144.8
4m
g/d
ay
am
on
gs
t
nor
m
al
weigh
t
st
ud
e
nts;
both
wer
e
great
er
t
han
the
U.
S
.
reco
m
m
end
ed
dieta
ry
al
lowan
ce
(R
DA)
(65
-
75m
g/d
ay
)
.
H
owe
ver,
the
dif
fere
nces
betwee
n
norm
al
and
ob
e
se
ad
olesc
ents
is
sign
ific
a
nt
(
p
-
value<
0.05).
T
he
vitam
in
E
intake
am
ong
Sh
e
rm
an
Indian
Hi
gh
Sc
hool
’s
Nati
ve
Am
erican
stud
e
nts
is
3.1
4
m
g/d
ay
in
norm
al
weigh
t
s
tud
e
nts,
2.28
m
g/d
ay
in
norm
al
weigh
t
stu
de
nts.
Bot
h
the
norm
a
l
weig
ht
an
d
ob
ese
Nati
ve
A
m
erican
ad
ole
scents
in
our
s
tud
y
c
on
s
um
e
d
sig
nifica
ntly
le
ss
than
the
RDA
of
vitam
i
n
E
pe
r
day,
wh
ic
h
is
15
m
g/d
ay
,
a
nd
the
diff
e
re
nce
betwee
n
t
he
t
wo
gro
ups’
int
ake
of
vitam
in
C
is
sign
ific
a
nt
(p
-
value<
0.05).
L
yc
op
e
ne
ave
ra
ge
i
ntake
am
on
g
norm
al
adol
escents
is
7.6
2m
g/d
ay
,
c
ompare
d
to
5.5m
g/d
ay
a
m
ong
obese
a
do
l
escents;
the d
if
fer
e
nce
in
i
n
ly
cop
e
ne
i
ntake
betwee
n
tw
o
gro
ups
was
sig
ni
ficant
(p
-
val
ue<0.0
5)
[
15
]
.
Re
centl
y,
we
f
ur
t
her
a
naly
zed
dieta
ry
intake
for
m
inerals
am
on
g
Nati
ve
A
m
erican
ad
olescent
s
(F
i
gure
1).
Fi
gure
1A
s
how
s
the
res
ults
on
ir
on
i
ntake,
w
hich
i
ndic
at
ed
a
sig
nifi
cant
dif
fer
e
nce
bet
ween
t
he
di
et
ary
intake
of
Iro
n
am
on
g
norm
a
l
(18.7m
g/d
ay
)
an
d
obese
(
13.
5m
g/d
ay
)
w
ei
gh
t
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ad
olescents
(p
-
val
ue=0.0
28)
.
T
he
U
.S.
R
DA
f
or
Iro
n
is
16.3
m
g/d
ay
,
w
hich
is
si
gn
i
ficantl
y
higher
t
ha
n
the
i
ntake
a
m
ou
nt
of
ob
ese
weig
h
t
a
do
le
sce
nts.
Fig
ure
1B
show
s
t
he
dieta
r
y
intake
of
Ma
gn
e
sium
a
m
ong
t
his
popula
ti
on
was
438.8m
g/d
ay
in
norm
al
weigh
t
stu
de
nts,
w
hile
the
m
ean
us
ua
l
intake
in
the
obese
gro
up
wa
s
333.4
m
g/d
ay
,
sign
ific
a
ntly
lower
t
han
t
he
no
rm
al
weigh
t
group
(p
-
val
ue=0.0
26).
T
he
U.
S
.
RDA
of
Ma
gn
esi
um
is
41
0mg/day
for
a
do
le
sce
nts
in
this
a
ge
ra
ng
e
,
wh
ic
h
s
howe
d
t
he
def
ic
ie
ncy
on
m
agnesi
um
in
the
obese
gro
up
of
Nati
ve
Am
eric
an
ad
olescents.
Fig
ur
e
1C
sho
w
s
th
e
dieta
ry
pota
ss
ium
intake
am
ong
t
his
popula
ti
on
i
n
the
norm
al
gro
up
was
38
88.
5m
g/d
ay
,
w
hi
le
the
m
ean
intake
in
t
he
ob
e
se
gro
up
was
2932m
g/d
ay
,
w
hich
is
sig
nific
antly
lowe
r
tha
n
t
he U.S
. RDA,
47
00m
g/d
ay
(
p
-
val
ue=0.0
26)
.
Levels
of
fibe
r
,
thiam
in
an
d
f
olate
c
on
s
um
ption
we
re
al
so
exam
ined
in
th
is
stu
dy.
Fig
ure
2A
s
how
s
the
total
fi
ber
i
ntake
am
on
g
norm
al
weigh
t
ado
le
sce
nts
was
sign
ific
a
ntly
hig
he
r
than
t
otal
fiber
inta
ke
a
m
on
g
ob
e
sit
y
ado
le
s
cents,
w
hich
is
28g/d
ay
in
th
e
norm
al
gr
oup
an
d
21
g/d
ay
in
the
obesi
ty
group.
T
he
R
DA
for
ado
le
sce
nts’
fi
ber
daily
inta
ke
is
25
g/d
ay
,
w
hich
is
n
ot
m
et
in
the
obese
gr
oup
o
f
a
do
le
sc
ents.
Fig
ur
e
2B
sho
w
s
thiam
in
daily
i
ntake
am
on
g
norm
al
weigh
t
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ad
olesce
nts
is
2.
5m
g/d
ay
,
wh
ic
h
is
sig
nif
ic
antly
higher
tha
n
th
e
obese
group
’s
i
ntake,
wh
i
ch
is
1.75
m
g/d
ay
.
B
oth
gro
up
s
m
et
the
U
.S.
RD
A
f
or
t
hia
m
in,
1.2m
g/d
ay
.
Fig
ur
e
2C
s
how
s
fo
la
te
inta
ke
a
m
on
g
norm
al
weig
ht
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ado
l
escents
is
600u
g/d
ay
,
wh
ic
h
is
si
gn
i
f
ic
antly
highe
r
than
the
ob
e
se
gr
oup,
445ug/
day.
The
res
ults
in
dicat
ed
th
at
the
intak
e
of
t
otal
fiber,
al
ong
with
thiam
in
and
f
ola
te
sh
ould
be
increase
d
am
on
g
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ad
olesce
nts.
T
he
res
ults
from
our
re
searc
h
s
uggeste
d
that
fiber
m
ay
play
an
im
po
rtant
ro
le
in
determ
ining
f
uture
obesi
ty
and
m
et
abo
li
c
syndrom
e.
F
urt
her
resea
rc
h
i
s
need
e
d
to
c
onfirm
our
fi
ndin
gs
an
d
ide
ntify
th
e
m
os
t
ef
fecti
ve
way
s
of
pro
vid
in
gheal
thy f
ood ser
vic
es for
adolesc
e
nts.
3.2.
Sta
tistica
l An
aly
sis
Re
su
lt
s
are
ex
presse
d
as
m
ean
SEM.
C
om
par
ison
s
bet
ween
norm
al
and
obese
gro
ups
were
pe
rfor
m
ed
by
tw
o
-
ta
il
ed
t
-
te
st.
Sig
nifica
nce
te
sti
ng
wa
s
set
at
p
-
value
<0.05.
All
res
ul
ts
are
re
porte
d
in
norm
al
or
ob
e
se
weig
ht
cl
assifi
cat
ion
.
Fi
gure
1
show
s
dieta
r
y
intake
of
ir
on,
m
agn
esi
um
and
po
ta
ssi
um
wh
il
e
Fig
ur
e
B
in
form
s
Diet
ary inta
ke
of total
f
ib
er,
thiam
in and
fo
l
at
e a
m
on
g Nati
ve Am
erican ad
olesce
nts.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IJPHS
IS
S
N: 22
52
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8806
Diet
ar
y N
utrient I
nta
ke
an
d Ob
esi
ty
P
reval
ence in
Nativ
e
America
n Ad
ol
escents
(
H
anch
u Da
i
)
117
Figure
1. Diet
a
ry intake
of ir
on
(A),
m
agn
esi
um
(B)
a
nd
po
ta
ssi
um
(
C) am
on
g Nati
ve Am
eric
an
ado
le
sce
nts
Figure
2. Diet
a
ry intake
of t
otal fiber
(A)
, th
i
a
m
in
(B)
a
nd folat
e (
C) am
on
g Nati
ve Am
erican
ado
le
sce
nts
4.
DISCU
SSI
ON
Our
res
ults
sug
gested
that
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ado
le
sce
nts
co
uld
lo
wer
t
heir
risk
of
obesi
ty
by
gaini
ng
gr
eat
er
acce
ss
to
healt
hy
f
ood,
al
ong
with
nu
t
riti
on
e
duca
ti
on
on
the
he
al
th
be
nef
it
s
of
inc
reasin
g
fruit
a
nd
veg
et
a
ble
inta
ke
f
r
om
scho
ol
.
A
do
le
sce
nt
ob
e
sit
y
br
in
gs
no
t
only
seri
ou
s
lo
ng
-
te
rm
healt
h
im
plica
t
ion
s
t
o
ado
le
sce
nts’
f
ut
ur
e
li
ve
s,
but
al
so
the
po
te
ntial
to
le
ad
to
a
so
ci
oecon
om
i
c
traject
or
y
of
lowe
r
ea
rn
i
ng
s
an
d
hous
e
hold
inc
om
e
[
1
7
]
.
The
r
esults
in
dicat
e
d
t
hat
the
i
ntak
e
of
m
uiltivit
a
m
ins,
m
inerals,
total
fi
be
r,
al
ong
with
thiam
in and fol
at
e shou
l
d be i
ncr
ease
d
am
ong Nati
ve Am
erican adolesc
e
nts.
The
re
su
lt
s
f
r
om
ou
r
resea
rch
sugg
est
e
d
that
fiber,
f
olate
a
nd
t
hiam
in
m
a
y
play
an
im
po
rtant
r
ole
in
determ
ining
f
ut
ur
e
obesi
ty
an
d
m
et
abo
li
c
sy
ndr
om
e.
Fu
rthe
rm
or
e,
Ma
li
n
f
ound
that
f
ood
rich
in
thiam
in,
fo
la
te
and
fi
ber
s
,
s
uc
h
as
w
hole
gr
ai
ns
,
m
ay
red
uce
d
diabetes
ris
k
and
the
m
echan
ism
s
app
ear
t
o
reduce
post
-
pran
dial
blood
glu
c
os
e
and
pe
rip
her
al
insu
li
n
resist
an
ce,
li
nk
in
g
to
e
nh
a
nce
d
m
et
abo
li
c
flexibili
ty
[
1
8
]
.
F
ur
t
her
re
search
is
nee
de
d
t
o
c
onfirm
our
fi
nd
i
ng
s
a
nd
id
entif
y
the
m
os
t
ef
fe
ct
ive
ways
of
pro
vid
in
g
healt
hy
f
ood
se
rv
ic
es
f
or
ado
le
sce
nts.
A
n
inte
rv
e
ntio
n
in
colla
borati
ng
with
sc
hool
adm
inist
rati
on
and
f
ood
ser
vi
ce
pro
vid
e
r
w
ould
be
ben
e
fici
al
in or
der to
help
stu
den
ts
k
ee
p
t
heir heal
thy l
evels
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8806
IJPHS
V
ol.
7
,
No.
2
,
J
une
20
18
:
11
4
–
119
118
5.
CONCL
US
I
O
N
T
his
st
udy
re
ve
al
ed
that
a
ntiox
i
dan
ts
s
u
ch
as
vitam
in
C,
vitam
in
E
a
nd
ly
cop
ene
,
a
re
ben
e
fici
al
in
lowe
rin
g
the
obesi
ty
rate
am
on
g
Nati
ve
Am
erican
a
do
le
sce
nts.
Diet
ary
int
ake
of
t
he
m
inerals
iro
n,
m
agn
esi
u
m
and
po
ta
ssi
um
was
ge
ner
al
ly
sh
ow
n
t
o
be
l
ower
am
on
g
ob
ese
Nati
ve
Ame
rican
ad
olesc
ents.
Le
vels
of
fibe
r,
thiam
in
an
d
f
ol
at
e
consum
ption
wer
e
sig
nifi
cantl
y
lowe
r
a
m
on
g
ob
e
sit
y
popula
ti
on
in
Sh
e
rm
an
India
n
High
School
’s
Nati
ve
Am
erican
ad
olescents,
w
hic
h
in
dicat
ed
t
he
correla
ti
on
bet
ween
hi
gh
e
r
le
vel
of
nutrie
nts
intake
play
i
m
po
rta
nt
ro
le
s i
n
lo
we
ring the
obesi
ty
r
at
e am
on
g Na
ti
ve
Am
erican
ado
le
sce
nts.
Ob
esi
ty
is
a
preve
ntable
pre
valence
that
ha
s
enca
psula
te
d
our
yo
uth
,
t
he
c
om
plex
in
te
racti
on
s
of
gen
et
ic
an
d
e
nvir
on
m
ental
factor
s
hav
e
bee
n
disco
ver
e
d
to
l
ead
to
the
onset
of
ob
esi
ty
.
O
be
se
Nati
v
e
Am
erican
ado
le
sce
nts in
Sh
e
rm
an
Indian Hig
h
Sc
hool
did
not m
eet
th
e RDA i
nta
ke
f
or
i
ron, m
agn
esi
um
, an
d p
otassium
in
t
his
researc
h.
O
ur
res
ults
su
ggest
that
th
is
po
pu
la
ti
on
c
ou
l
d
be
nef
it
f
r
om
i
m
pr
ov
e
d
avail
abili
ty
of
healt
hy
foo
d,
s
uch
a
s
veg
et
a
bles
an
d
fruit
s
w
hich
a
re
rich
i
n
thes
e
m
inerals,
al
ong
with
nu
t
riti
on
e
ducat
io
n
on
the
i
m
po
rtance
of
t
hese
nutrie
nts.
Av
ai
la
bili
ty
an
d
acc
ess
to
hea
lt
hy
f
oods
high
in
a
ntiox
i
dan
ts
,
fiber,
an
d
Vit
a
m
in
B
is
re
qu
ire
d
f
or
Nati
ve
Am
erican
a
dole
sce
nts.
Using
data
com
par
in
g
to
baseli
ne
a
nd
na
ti
on
al
s
urveys
ha
ve
al
lowed
ne
w
s
uggestio
ns
a
nd
possi
ble
e
duc
at
ion
inter
ven
t
ion
s
am
on
g
th
e
Nati
ve
Am
erican
popula
ti
on.
T
he
resu
lt
s
in
dicat
ed
t
hat t
he
intak
e of
total
fibe
r, al
on
g wit
h t
hi
a
m
in and
folat
e s
hould
be
inc
reased
am
ong Nati
v
e
Am
erican adolesc
ents.
ACKN
OWLE
DGE
MENT
We
w
ou
l
d
li
ke
to
e
xpres
s
our
tha
nks
to
S
her
m
an
I
ndia
n
High
Sc
hool;
to
Be
njam
in
Kn
isl
ey
for
sta
ti
sti
cal
an
alysis;
an
d
t
o
J
W
&
Ida M
Ja
m
eson
Fou
nd
at
ion
2017
f
or
t
he
ir co
ll
ab
orat
io
n
a
nd s
upport.
REFERE
NCE
S
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v
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t
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demic
:
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al
l
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rev
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e
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sit
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adul
t
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ou
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ates,
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”
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l
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llo,
M.;
,
“
Overw
ei
ght
and
Obesit
y
Am
ong
North
Am
eri
ca
n
Ind
ian
Infa
nts,
Chi
ldr
en,
and
Youth,
”
Ame
rican
Journ
al
o
f
Hum
an
Biology:
The
Of
ficial
Journal
o
f
t
he
Hum
an
Bi
o
lo
gy
Coun
ci
l
,
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.
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no
.
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pp
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302
–
313,
2012
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[7]
Cent
ers
for
Dis
e
ase
Control
and
Preve
nti
on
(CD
C),
Nat
iona
l
Ce
nte
r
for
H
ea
l
th
Stat
ist
ic
s
(NCH
S),
Nat
iona
l
Hea
l
t
h
and
Nu
tr
it
ion
Ex
aminat
ion
Surve
y
D
ata,
H
y
attsvi
ll
e
,
MD
:
U.S.
Depa
rtment
of
He
al
th
and
Hum
an
Servic
es,
Cen
te
r
s
for
Disea
se
Cont
rol
and
Preve
n
tion.
[8]
Noia,
J.;
Sch
ink
e,
S.;
Con
te
nto
,
I.
;
,
“
Die
ta
r
y
p
atter
ns
of
rese
rv
at
i
on
and
non
-
rese
r
vat
ion
Na
ti
ve
A
m
eri
ca
n
y
ouths,
”
Et
hnicit
y
&
Dise
ase
,
vol
15,
no.
4,
pp
.
705
-
12,
20
05.
[9]
Stor
y
,
M
.
;
Stev
e
ns,
J.;
Him
es,
J.;
Stone,
E
.
;
Rock
,
B.
;
E
the
lb
ah,
B
.
;
Davis,
S.;
,
“
Obesit
y
in
Am
eri
ca
n
-
India
n
ch
il
dre
n
:
Preva
le
n
ce,
cons
eque
nc
es,
and
p
rev
ention,
”
Pre
v
ent
i
ve
M
edicine:
An
Int
ernati
on
a
l
Journal
De
vo
te
d
To
Prac
ti
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e
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no
.
6,
pp.
3
-
1
2,
2003
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Li
,
Y
.
;
W
ang
,
C.
;
Zhu,
K.;
Feng
,
R.
;
Sun,
C
.
;
,
“
E
ffe
ct
s
of
m
ultivit
amin
and
m
ine
r
a
l
supplementatio
n
on
adi
posi
t
y
,
ene
rg
y
expe
ndi
t
ure
and
li
pid
pr
ofil
es
in
ob
ese
Chine
se
wom
en,”
Inte
rna
t
ional
Journal
Of
Obe
sity
,
vo
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Free
dm
an,
D.;
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erd
ula,
M.;
Per
c
y
,
C.
,
Ballew
C.
,
W
hit
e
,
L.;
,
“
Obesit
y
,
le
ve
ls
of
li
pids
and
glu
co
se,
and
sm
oking
among Nava
jo
a
dole
sce
n
ts,”
The
Journal
o
f
Nu
trit
ion
,
vol.
1
27,
suppl
pp.
2120
–
212
7,
1997
.
[12]
Hoxha,
R
.
;
Isla
m
i,
H.;
Qorraj
-
B
y
t
y
q
i,
H.;
Th
aç
i
,
S.;
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E
.
;
,
“
Rel
ationship
o
f
W
ei
ght
and
Bod
y
Mass
Inde
x
with
Bone
Mine
ral
Densi
t
y
in
A
d
ult
Men
from
Kos
ovo,
”
Mat
eria
Soci
o
-
Me
d
ic
a
,
v
ol.
26,
no.
5
,
pp
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3
06
–
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4.
[13]
Davison,
K.
;
Ka
pla
n,
B.
;
,
“
Nutri
ent
int
ak
ers
ar
e
c
orre
lated
wi
th
o
ver
all
ps
y
chiatr
i
c
func
ti
oning
in
adul
ts
wit
h
m
ood
disorder
s,”
The
C
anadian
Journ
al
Of
Psy
chi
atry
/
La
Re
v
ue
Canad
ie
nne
De
Psy
chiatrie
,
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.
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no.
2,
pp
.
85
-
92,
201
2.
[14]
Dodevska,
M.;
S
obaj
i
c
,
S.;
Djord
je
vi
c,
P.;
Dim
it
r
i
je
vi
c
-
Srec
kovi
c,
V.;
Spasoj
evic
-
Kal
imanovska,
V.;
Djo
rdje
v
ic,
B.
,
“
Eff
ec
ts
o
f
tot
a
l
fibre
or
r
esista
n
t
starc
h
-
ri
ch
d
iets
withi
n
li
f
est
y
le
i
nte
rve
n
ti
on
in
ob
ese
pr
edi
ab
etic
a
dult
s,”
Europea
n
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Of
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tri
ti
on
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.
127
-
137,
2
016.
[15]
Knisel
y
,
B
.
;
Cr
osb
y
,
G.;
Bart
h
,
M.;
C
aro
th
ers,
L.
;
,
“
Hea
lt
h
Ri
sk
of
Obesit
y
in
Nati
v
e
Am
eri
c
an
Adolesc
ent
s,
”
Inte
rnational
Jo
urnal
of Publ
i
c Healt
h
S
ci
en
ce
,
vol.
4,
no.
2
,
pp.
9
4
-
101,
2015
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IJPHS
IS
S
N: 22
52
-
8806
Diet
ar
y N
utrient I
nta
ke
an
d Ob
esi
ty
P
reval
ence in
Nativ
e
America
n Ad
ol
escents
(
H
anch
u Da
i
)
119
[16]
Pere
z,
M.;
Knisl
e
y
,
B
.
;
Crosb
y
,
G.;
Zh
eng,
S.;
B
a
rth,
M.;
,
“
Obesit
y
Preva
le
n
ce
a
nd
Dietar
y
Int
ak
e
of
Ant
ioxi
dan
t
s
in
Nat
ive Am
eri
ca
n
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Per
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Insulin
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an
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Im
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s
Glucose
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s
in
Obese
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A
Randomiz
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d
-
Control
le
d
T
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