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ati
o
n
a
l
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urn
a
l
o
f
P
u
b
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th Science (IJ
P
HS)
V
o
l.4
,
No
.2
,
Jun
e
2
015
, pp
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2
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://iaesjo
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IJPHS
The Impacts of Biotechnology on
Biodiversity in Global Health:
A Case Study on Avian In
fluenza in Bangladesh
Muhiu
ddin H
a
ider
1
, Milind
Patel
2
, Pri
y
anka
Bhat
ta
cha
r
j
e
3
, Ma
ari
y
a B
a
ssa
4
1
School of
Public Health
, Univ
er
sity
of Mar
y
land
, USA
2
Coll
ege o
f
Agr
i
cultur
a
l
&
Biol
ogica
l
Eng
i
neering, Purdue Univ
ersity
, USA
3
Department of
Genetic Eng
i
neering & Biotechn
o
log
y
, Shah
j
a
la
l
Uni
v
e
r
si
ty
of Sci
e
nce
& Te
c
hnology
,
Ba
ngl
a
de
sh
4
School of
Nursing, Yale Univer
sity
, USA
Article Info
A
B
STRAC
T
Article histo
r
y:
Received Feb 18, 2015
Rev
i
sed
Mar
c
h 23
,
20
15
Accepted Apr 26, 2015
Biodiversity
is the variab
ility
of
between
gen
e
tics, species, or ecos
y
s
tems of
living org
a
nism
s within a spe
c
ifi
c
reg
i
on. Bi
odiversit
y
is essential
fo
r
s
u
s
t
aining he
al
th
y
living
network
s
and s
y
s
t
em
s
becaus
e
it
allows
f
o
r a v
a
ri
e
t
y
of food sources
, medicin
e
, and
biologi
cal
control, while also play
ing
a
signific
a
nt role i
n
atm
o
spheric regula
tion, nutr
i
e
n
t c
y
cling
,
and pollina
tion
.
Loss of biodiv
e
rsity
and ecosy
s
tem
ch
a
nge
inc
r
ea
se
s the risk of the
emergence or sp
reading of
infe
ct
ious
dis
eas
es
and
global pandemics such as
the Avian Influenza (AI H5N1).
Biotec
hno
log
y
is one solution fo
r reducing
,
and ultim
at
el
y
e
lim
inating
,
th
e t
r
ansm
ission of
avian in
fluen
z
a
.
Tradit
iona
l
m
e
thods of tre
a
ting
infe
ct
ed
anim
als, such
as com
m
on vaccin
e
s,
ar
e
temporar
y
solutions that hav
e
no
effe
ct on th
e biodiversity
of
an
ecos
y
stem.
Methods in animal biotech
nolo
g
y
such
as ar
tif
icial insemination, embr
y
o
trans
f
er, and
in vitro
fertilizatio
n have led to deve
lopm
ents
of cheaper
, s
a
fer,
and m
o
re effecti
v
e vacc
ines
. L
i
v
e
s
t
ock tha
t
have
been trea
ted for
H5N1, as
well as
thos
e th
at ar
e h
eal
th
y a
nd have
n
e
ver
b
een in
fected h
a
v
e
proven
to
incre
a
se the div
e
rsit
y, l
eading
t
o
the elim
ina
tio
n of specific issues. Sim
ilar
effects are attain
able if th
ese animal bi
otechno
lo
g
y
methods were to be used
on poultr
y
inf
ect
ed with
th
e av
ia
n influ
e
nza
virus
.
Keyword:
Avia
n
B
a
ngl
a
d
esh
B
i
odi
ve
rsi
t
y
B
i
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
In
flue
nza
Copyright ©
201
5 Institut
e
o
f
Ad
vanced
Engin
eer
ing and S
c
i
e
nce.
All rights re
se
rve
d
.
Co
rresp
ond
i
ng
Autho
r
:
Milin
d
Patel,
C
o
l
l
e
ge
of
A
g
r
i
cul
t
u
ral
&
B
i
o
l
ogi
cal
E
ngi
ne
eri
n
g,
Pu
rdu
e
Un
i
v
ersity,
2
2
5
S.
Un
iv
ersity Street,
W
e
st Lafayette, IN, 47
907
,
USA.
Em
ail: patel231@purdue
.edu
1.
INTRODUCTION
Bio
d
i
v
e
rsity is
th
e v
a
riab
ility o
f
b
e
t
w
een g
e
netics, sp
ecies,
o
r
eco
system
s o
f
liv
ing
o
r
g
a
nis
m
s with
in
a specific
regi
on. Biodive
r
sity is essential for s
u
st
aining healthy
living networ
ks a
n
d
syste
m
s because it
al
l
o
ws
fo
r a
va
ri
et
y
of
f
o
o
d
s
o
u
r
ces,
m
e
di
cine, a
n
d
bi
ol
ogi
cal
cont
rol
,
w
h
i
l
e
al
so pl
ay
i
n
g a
si
g
n
i
f
i
cant
rol
e
i
n
at
m
o
sp
h
e
ric reg
u
l
ation
,
nu
tri
e
n
t
cyclin
g
,
an
d po
llin
atio
n [1
].
Lo
ss
o
f
b
i
od
iv
ersity an
d eco
system
ch
ang
e
increases the risk of the em
e
r
ge
nce
o
r
spre
adi
n
g of i
n
fect
i
ous di
sease
s
and
gl
o
b
al
pa
ndem
i
cs such as t
h
e
Avi
a
n In
fl
ue
nz
a
(
A
I H
5
N
1
)
.
Many Asia
n c
o
untries, suc
h
as Banglades
h
, are c
h
r
onicall
y
infected
with AI.
In recent years, highly
pat
h
oge
ni
c avi
a
n i
n
fl
u
e
nza (
H
P
A
I H
5
N1
) has cause
d m
a
ssi
ve m
o
rt
al
i
t
y i
n
dom
est
i
c
poul
t
r
y
fl
oc
ks
, i
n
fect
e
d
bi
r
d
s i
n
4
1
%
of t
h
e a
v
i
a
n o
r
de
rs, a
nd
has
l
e
d t
o
2 h
u
m
a
n deat
h
s
. T
h
e ro
ot
causes
fo
r t
h
e em
ergence,
persi
s
t
e
nce, a
n
d sp
rea
d
o
f
H
5
N
1
i
n
cl
udes:
C
h
an
ges i
n
pa
t
h
o
g
en a
n
d h
o
s
t
bi
odi
versi
t
y
;
Di
sap
p
eara
n
c
e
and
d
e
gr
ad
atio
n of w
e
tland
s;
D
e
t
e
r
i
o
r
ation of
lan
d
s
cap
e alon
g with
b
i
rd
m
i
g
r
atin
g
rou
t
es;
an
d
cu
ltu
ral p
r
actices
o
f
pou
ltry p
r
o
d
u
c
tion
and
m
a
rk
etin
g
.
Bio
t
ech
no
log
y
’s ro
le in
increasing
b
i
od
i
v
ersity can
limit
th
e
em
ergence
,
per
s
i
s
t
e
nce, a
n
d
s
p
rea
d
of
A
I
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
PH
S I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
0
6
An
al
yzi
n
g
t
h
e
I
m
p
a
ct
s
of
Bi
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
o
n
Bi
odi
versi
t
y
i
n
Gl
o
bal
He
al
t
h
:
A C
a
se
...
. (
M
uhi
ud
di
n
H
a
i
d
er)
10
3
An an
alysis
of
b
i
od
iv
ersity’s ro
le in reducin
g
the burden of
diseas
e from
various articles
and
j
ourn
a
ls
will b
e
d
i
scu
ssed
.
Also
, th
e
v
a
ri
o
u
s o
p
tion
s
an
d
p
o
t
en
tial o
f
b
i
o
t
echn
o
l
o
g
y
an
d
its relation
s
h
i
p
i
n
b
i
od
iv
ersity will b
e
an
alyzed. After an
alyzin
g th
e
d
a
ta and
m
u
ltitu
d
e
of op
tio
n
s
, a
final d
i
scu
ssi
on
ab
ou
t
biotechnology’s role in re
duc
ing avia
n infl
uenza in
Bangladesh will take place. A strong c
oncl
u
sion
about
b
i
o
t
echno
log
y
’s ro
le in
b
i
od
i
v
ersity with
the sp
eci
al fo
cus o
n
th
e Av
ian
Influ
e
n
za in Ban
g
l
ad
esh
will b
e
devel
ope
d. T
h
e ob
ject
i
v
es ar
e t
o
fi
nd:
What
i
s
t
h
e
rel
a
t
i
onshi
p
bet
w
een bi
ot
ech
nol
ogy
a
nd bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
?
H
o
w
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
i
s
usef
ul
i
n
r
e
duci
ng t
h
e b
u
r
d
e
n
o
f
di
sea
s
e
?
What
nee
d
s t
o
be d
one
i
n
or
der t
o
p
r
om
ot
e
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
’
s
r
o
l
e
i
n
re
duci
n
g
di
sease
t
r
a
n
sm
i
ssi
on t
h
ro
u
g
h
resea
r
c
h
?
2.
LITERATU
R
E
REVIE
W
Bio
d
i
v
e
rsity’s ro
le in
redu
cin
g
th
e
bu
rd
en o
f
d
i
sease
fro
m
v
a
rio
u
s
articles an
d
jo
urn
a
ls will be
di
scuss
e
d
al
o
n
g
wi
t
h
t
h
e
va
ri
ous
o
p
t
i
o
ns a
n
d
pot
e
n
t
i
a
l
of
b
i
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
a
n
d
i
t
s
rel
a
t
i
o
ns
hi
p i
n
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
.
2.
1.
Glo
b
a
l
Pa
tterns of
Av
ia
n Influenza
in
Wild Birds
Avi
a
n i
n
fl
uenz
a vi
ruse
s ha
ve been see
n
i
n
m
a
ny
di
ffe
re
nt
speci
es, b
u
t
i
t
i
s
t
hou
g
h
t
t
h
at
w
i
l
d
fo
wl
a
n
d
sho
r
e
b
i
r
ds are
vi
r
u
s rese
r
voi
r
s
i
n
nat
u
re
. Th
e hi
g
h
l
y
pat
h
o
g
eni
c
a
v
i
a
n i
n
f
l
uenza
(H
PA
I)
vi
r
u
s p
h
e
not
y
p
e i
s
co
mm
o
n
in
wil
d
b
i
rd
s an
d pou
ltry, an
d it is
ach
iev
e
d
b
y
in
t
r
odu
cing
an
amin
o
acid
i
n
to
th
e b
i
rd [2
].
2.
1.
1.
Mi
gr
at
or
y
B
i
r
d
s
a
s
a Na
tur
a
l
Reser
voi
r of
L
P
AI Vi
ruses
B
i
rds
of
wet
l
a
nds
an
d
aq
uat
i
c
en
vi
r
onm
ent
s
est
a
bl
i
s
h
t
h
e
m
a
jor
nat
u
ral
LPA
I
vi
r
u
s
re
serv
oi
r
.
T
h
e
LPAI v
i
ru
ses i
n
fect cells th
at lin
e lin
in
g
the in
testin
al
tract of birds
,
and the vi
ruse
s
are exc
r
eted i
n
hi
gh
conce
n
trations
in their feces.
Findi
ng
a high
am
ount of viruses
in birds
that
live in aquatic environm
ents m
a
y
be due to t
h
e
virus bei
ng t
r
a
n
sm
itted from
the fecal
m
a
tte
r
to the
birds
via surface
wa
ters. See Ta
ble
1 in
Olsen et. al., 20
06
, wh
ich d
i
sp
lays wild b
i
rds in
wh
ich
t
h
e i
n
fl
u
e
n
z
a A v
i
ru
s is
p
r
ev
alen
t
[2
].
M
a
ny
A
n
seri
f
o
rm
es and
C
h
arad
ri
i
f
o
r
m
e
s per
f
o
r
m
regul
ar l
o
ng
-
d
i
s
t
a
n
ce m
i
grat
i
ons
t
o
di
ffe
rent
co
un
tries and
co
n
tin
en
ts; th
erefo
r
e t
h
ey po
ten
tially d
i
st
ri
but
e LP
AI
vi
r
u
ses t
o
di
ffe
ren
t
part
s
of t
h
e
wo
rl
d
.
Whet
her
i
t
i
s
on
l
a
n
d
or
al
o
n
g
t
h
e
m
a
jor
fl
y
w
ay
s (t
he
r
out
es
t
h
at
bi
r
d
s fl
y
du
ri
n
g
m
i
grat
i
on)
, m
i
grat
i
o
n
co
nn
ects m
a
n
y
b
i
r
d
pop
u
l
ation
s
th
rou
g
h
commo
n
b
r
eed
i
ng
ar
eas,
d
u
r
i
ng
m
i
g
r
atio
n
,
or
at sh
ar
ed
n
onbr
eed
i
ng
areas.
As a
res
u
l
t
of
t
h
e m
i
grat
i
ons a
n
d
i
n
t
e
ract
i
ons
bet
w
e
e
n i
n
fect
ed
bi
r
d
s a
nd
ot
her s
p
eci
es, t
h
e
pat
h
oge
n i
s
tran
sm
it
ted
and
th
e v
i
ru
s sp
read
s t
o
n
e
w areas [2
].
It
i
s
al
so i
m
por
t
a
nt
t
o
n
o
t
e
t
h
a
t
whi
l
e
bi
r
d
s m
i
grat
e f
r
om
bre
e
di
n
g
t
o
n
o
n
-
b
r
eedi
ng a
r
eas,
t
h
ey
m
a
ke
several
st
o
p
s i
n
bet
w
ee
n t
o
e
a
t
,
rest
, a
n
d
pr
epare
f
o
r
t
h
ei
r
next
fl
i
g
ht
. T
h
e bi
r
d
s
spe
n
d
m
o
re t
i
m
e
duri
n
g
t
h
ese
sto
p
s
th
an
th
ey
d
o
du
ri
n
g
th
ei
r actu
a
l flig
h
t
.
Th
ese stop
s resu
lt in
h
i
g
h
local-d
en
sities o
f
in
fected
b
i
rds, an
d
th
e sites are im
p
o
r
tan
t
fo
r th
e tran
sm
issio
n
o
f
LPAI
v
i
ru
ses bet
w
een wild and ca
ptive
birds, as
well as ot
he
r
sp
ecies in th
e ar
ea. Map
s
o
f
mig
r
ation
p
a
tter
n
s fo
r
w
ild b
i
rd
s can
b
e
seen in
Fig
u
r
e
1
o
f
O
l
sen
et. al, 2006
[
2
].
2.
1.
2.
Influenz
a Vir
u
ses
in Duc
k
s
H5
N
1
s
p
rea
d
s
am
ong
wi
l
d
duc
ks i
n
N
o
rt
h Am
eri
ca an
d N
o
rt
her
n
E
u
ro
pe.
Da
bbl
i
n
g
duc
ks
(
An
as
gen
u
s
)
an
d M
a
l
l
a
rds (
A
n
aspl
a
t
yrhync
h
o
s
) are in
fected
with in
flu
e
n
za v
i
ruses
m
o
re frequen
tly th
an
o
t
h
e
r b
i
rd
.
This can
be
related to dabbling duc
k
s
using
food found at surface
waters
as their prim
a
r
y consum
ption a
nd
sw
itch
i
ng
b
r
eed
i
ng
g
r
ou
nd
s betw
een
year
s [2
].
Th
is in
form
at
i
o
n
is kno
wn
o
r
o
b
s
erved
in
du
cks in
th
e North
e
rn
Hem
i
sp
h
e
re, bu
t th
ere is n
o
t
m
u
ch
kn
o
w
n
ab
o
u
t
t
h
e
pre
v
al
ence
of
avi
a
n i
n
fl
ue
nza i
n
wi
l
d
du
cks i
n
t
h
e
S
out
her
n
Hem
i
sphere,
or
t
h
e
p
o
t
e
nt
i
a
l
o
f
t
r
ansm
i
ssi
on b
e
t
w
een t
h
e t
w
o
hem
i
spheres
[
2
]
.
The m
o
st
feasibl
e
m
e
t
hod t
o
pre
v
e
n
t
and co
nt
r
o
l
H5
N1
H
P
AI i
n
wi
l
d
bi
r
d
s i
s
t
h
ro
u
gh c
ont
rol
o
f
t
h
e
disease i
n
poultry with
use
of vacci
ne t
o
reduce
e
n
vironm
ental burde
n
of H5
N1 HPAIV, a
n
d eventua
l
eradication of
the virus
i
n
dom
estic
p
o
u
ltry, esp
ecially in
do
m
e
stic d
u
c
ks
wh
ich
are raised
in enzo
o
tic
cou
n
t
r
i
e
s
on
r
a
nge
or i
n
ot
h
e
r o
u
t
d
oo
r sy
s
t
em
s havi
n
g
cont
act
wi
t
h
wi
l
d
aq
uat
i
c
and
peri
u
r
ban t
e
r
r
e
st
ri
al
b
i
rd
s [
3
].
2.
1.
3.
Influenz
a Vir
u
ses
in Gulls and
Terns
Late su
mmer an
d
early fall is
th
e ti
m
e
p
e
rio
d
in
wh
ic
h the virus is at the highe
st pre
v
alence in gulls
,
even t
h
o
u
gh i
n
fl
ue
nza vi
r
u
ses
are det
ect
ed i
n
o
n
l
y
a sm
al
l
pr
o
p
o
r
t
i
on
of
gul
l
s
.
Al
so,
g
u
l
l
s
breed i
n
c
r
ow
de
d
and
hi
ghl
y
de
nse c
o
l
o
ni
es
m
a
ki
ng i
t
easi
e
r f
o
r t
h
e
vi
r
u
s t
o
s
p
rea
d
,
w
h
i
c
h i
s
di
f
f
ere
n
t
f
r
om
dab
b
l
i
n
g
d
u
c
k
s
wh
ich
are m
o
re spread ou
t in
their bree
ding colonies
[2].
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
06
IJP
H
S V
o
l
.
4, No
. 2,
J
u
ne 2
0
1
5
:
10
2 – 1
1
2
10
4
2.
1.
4.
Influenz
a Vir
u
ses
in Wader
s
Wade
rs c
ont
ai
n a wi
de
vari
et
y
of vi
r
u
ses
.
U
n
l
i
k
e d
u
c
k
s,
w
a
ders
ha
ve hi
g
h
er
vi
r
u
s p
r
eva
l
ence d
u
ri
n
g
t
h
e sp
ri
n
g
m
i
grat
i
o
n (~
14
%
)
t
h
an a
n
y
ot
her t
i
m
e
of the year. Ma
ny wader s
p
eci
es of the Northern
Hem
i
sphere M
a
ny
wade
r spe
c
i
e
s of t
h
e N
o
rt
her
n
He
m
i
sphere m
i
grat
e int
e
r
n
at
i
onal
l
y
ove
r l
o
ng di
st
ances;
th
erefore it is
very lik
ely th
at th
ey sp
read
th
e
in
flu
e
n
za
v
i
ru
s all o
v
e
r t
h
e
g
l
o
b
e
[2
].
2.
1.
5.
Influenz
a Vir
u
ses
in Oth
er Wild
Birds
Num
e
ro
us
bi
rd
s h
o
st
LP
AI
vi
ruses
b
u
t
i
t
i
s
uncl
e
a
r
w
h
i
c
h
speci
es c
ont
ai
n
an e
n
d
e
m
i
c for i
n
fl
ue
nza
viruses and which species contain the
virus as a te
m
porary pathogen. Geese, sw
an
s, rails, p
e
trels, an
d
corm
orants a
r
e
species in
whi
c
h influe
nza vi
ruses
are
fre
quently detected. These s
p
ecies share
a ha
bitat
with
species in whi
c
h influe
nza
vi
ruses
ar
e
en
de
m
i
c or i
n
di
ge
n
ous
.
In
fl
ue
nza
vi
r
u
s
pre
v
al
en
ce seem
s t
o
be
l
o
we
r
i
n
t
h
ese
bi
r
d
s
t
h
an
da
bbl
i
n
g
duc
ks
, b
u
t
st
u
d
i
e
s are
l
i
m
i
t
e
d a
n
d
ha
ve
n
o
t
been
car
ri
ed
o
u
t
d
u
ri
n
g
ce
rt
ai
n
season
s
and
in certain
lo
cation
s
[2
].
B
e
havi
or a
nd
ecol
o
gy
are i
m
port
a
nt
fo
r
d
e
t
e
rm
i
n
i
ng t
h
e
rol
e
of
duc
ks
,
gul
l
s
, a
n
d wa
ders a
s
h
o
st
speci
es. Geese
are
m
a
i
n
l
y
herbi
v
o
r
o
u
s an
d us
ual
l
y
gat
h
er i
n
l
a
r
g
e f
l
ocks f
o
r
graz
i
ng i
n
past
ure
s
an
d
agric
u
ltural
fields, es
pecially duri
ng
t
h
e
n
onb
r
e
ed
ing
season
[
2
].
In pa
rt
s of t
h
e
wo
rl
d
,
wi
l
d
ge
ese and d
u
c
k
s are fre
que
nt
l
y
kept
al
o
ngsi
d
e chi
c
ke
ns, w
h
i
c
h m
a
y
form
t
h
e b
r
i
d
ge
fo
r i
n
fl
uenza
vi
r
u
se
s bet
w
een
wi
l
d
an
d
dom
est
i
c
bi
r
d
s
[2]
.
2.
1.
6.
Genetic
Variation of Influe
nza
Viruses in
Wild Birds
During
t
h
e
winter, th
e m
a
j
o
rity o
f
tun
d
ra shoreb
ir
ds
from
the Russia
n
Fa
r
East spe
n
d the
season in
Sou
t
h
east Asia
and
Au
st
ralia. Th
e
eco
l
og
ical
iso
l
atio
n
of i
n
flu
e
n
za
v
i
ru
s
hosts allo
ws o
ccasio
n
a
l sp
illo
ver of
gene
se
gm
ent
s
fr
om
one
gene
po
ol
t
o
t
h
e
ot
h
e
r, a
n
d
genet
i
c
reass
o
rt
m
e
nt
occurs
d
u
e t
o
t
h
e segm
ent
e
d
n
a
t
u
re
of
t
h
e i
n
fl
ue
nz
a vi
r
u
s
ge
nom
e [
2
]
.
2.
1.
7.
H5N1 in Wild Birds
It
i
s
st
ron
g
l
y
bel
i
e
ved t
h
at
dom
est
i
c
wat
e
rf
owl
,
s
p
eci
fi
c
farm
i
ng prac
t
i
ces, and ag
r
o
ecol
ogi
cal
envi
ronm
ents
played a key role in
the oc
currence
, m
a
in
tenance, a
nd s
p
rea
d
o
f
H
5
N
1
fo
r m
a
ny
affecte
d
cou
n
t
r
i
e
s.
T
h
e
r
e
has
bee
n
d
e
bat
e
ove
r
w
h
et
her i
n
fect
e
d
bi
r
d
s
caus
e
t
h
e
vi
r
u
s t
o
s
p
read
(as
m
e
nt
i
one
d
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
o
u
t
t
h
e
fi
rst
seve
ral
para
gra
p
hs)
be
cause i
t
has
b
een a
r
g
u
e
d
t
h
at
i
n
fect
e
d
bi
r
d
s
bec
o
m
e
severel
y
affect
ed
a
n
d
ca
nn
ot
c
ont
i
n
ue
m
i
grat
i
on,
t
h
us
m
a
ki
ng i
t
u
n
l
i
k
el
y
t
o
s
p
rea
d
t
h
e
H5
N
1
vi
r
u
s
[2]
.
On
t
h
e
co
nt
ra
ry
, i
t
h
a
s
bee
n
see
n
i
n
e
x
p
e
ri
m
e
nt
al
i
n
fect
i
ons t
h
at
se
veral
bi
r
d
spe
c
i
e
s su
rvi
v
e
i
n
fect
i
o
n an
d s
h
ed t
h
e
H5
N
1
vi
r
u
s wi
t
h
o
u
t
a
ppa
re
nt
di
seas
e si
gns
.
Al
so, i
t
has bee
n
see
n
i
n
m
a
ny
wi
l
d
bi
rd
s
and chic
kens t
h
at bi
rds
bec
o
me partially immune after
previ
ous
expos
u
res to LPAI
influenza
viruses
.
Recent
stu
d
i
es
sugg
est th
at HPAI
viru
ses m
a
y b
eco
m
e
less p
a
th
og
en
ic to duck
s
i
n
fected
ex
p
e
rim
e
n
t
all
y
, wh
ile
ret
a
i
n
i
n
g
hi
g
h
pat
h
oge
ni
ci
t
y
f
o
r
chi
c
kens
[
2
]
.
Now th
at
we
h
a
v
e
an
u
n
d
e
rstan
d
i
n
g
o
f
AI in
b
i
rd
s,
we
will d
i
scu
ss t
h
e n
a
ture of av
ian
influ
e
n
za
vi
r
u
ses i
n
wi
l
d
bi
r
d
s a
n
d
m
i
grat
i
on
pat
t
e
rn
s i
n
t
h
e
ne
xt
sect
i
o
n
.
2.
2.
Avi
a
n I
n
fl
ue
n
z
a Vi
ruses i
n
Mi
gr
ati
n
g
Wi
l
d
B
i
rds
2.
2.
1.
Inter
-
Species Transmissi
on
The ec
ol
o
g
i
cal
rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
ps
bet
w
ee
n
wi
l
d
bi
r
d
s a
n
d
avi
a
n i
n
fl
ue
nza
ha
ve
resul
t
e
d
i
n
a
b
r
oa
d
p
ool
o
f
vi
ral
ge
net
i
c
di
ve
rsi
t
y
as wel
l
as a reserv
oi
r
of
vi
ru
ses t
h
at
coul
d be t
r
a
n
sm
i
t
t
e
d am
ong sp
eci
es.
Un
de
rst
a
n
d
i
n
g
ho
w t
h
ese rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
ps w
o
rk
can bet
t
e
r hel
p
us u
n
d
erst
a
n
d h
o
w t
o
re
d
u
c
e
t
h
e t
r
ansm
i
s
si
on o
f
avi
a
n i
n
fl
uenza
i
n
t
o
d
o
m
e
st
i
c
bi
r
d
s a
n
d
h
u
m
a
ns
[4]
.
W
i
l
d
aq
uat
i
c
bi
r
d
s suc
h
as
duc
ks a
nd
gee
s
e are a rese
r
voi
r f
o
r a
v
i
a
n
i
n
fl
ue
nza vi
r
u
ses, a
n
d t
h
e
m
a
jori
t
y
o
f
a
v
i
a
n i
n
fl
ue
nza
vi
ruses
det
ect
ed
i
n
wi
l
d
bi
r
d
s a
r
e l
o
w
pat
h
o
g
e
n
i
c
(
L
PA
I
)
.
Po
ul
t
r
y
are
a
key
l
i
n
k
bet
w
ee
n wi
l
d
bi
r
d
s an
d
pe
o
p
l
e
w
h
en
l
o
ok
i
ng at
hum
an i
n
fect
i
o
ns. T
r
a
n
sm
i
ssi
on of
H5
N
1
f
r
om
bi
rds t
o
hum
ans ha
s oc
cur
r
ed
l
a
rg
el
y
wi
t
h
po
ul
t
r
y
o
u
t
b
reaks
,
s
u
g
g
e
st
i
ng t
h
at
t
h
e
t
r
ansm
i
ssi
on
occu
rs
d
u
ri
n
g
hi
g
h
e
r
v
i
ral am
p
lificatio
n
an
d systematic sp
read
.
Th
is
v
i
ew is
s
u
pporte
d
by t
h
e em
ergence a
n
d sprea
d
of
H5N1 in
so
u
t
h
e
rn
Ch
in
a [4
].
2.
2.
2.
Intr
a-S
p
ecies Transmissi
on
Hum
a
n-t
o
-h
u
m
an t
r
ansm
i
ssion
of a
v
i
a
n i
n
f
l
uenza i
s
ex
t
r
emely rare th
at it is b
a
sically
n
on-ex
isten
t
.
Tran
sm
i
ssi
on of
H
5
N
1
req
u
i
r
es c
ont
act
bet
w
een
h
u
m
a
ns and i
n
fect
e
d
b
i
rds.
A
v
i
a
n i
n
f
l
uenza
vi
r
u
ses
cause
seasonal epide
m
ic
influe
nza whe
r
e m
u
tatio
n and reass
o
rt
men
t
with
in
th
e v
i
ru
s cau
s
es
n
e
w strai
n
s to
e
m
erge
each year in
within infected
hum
a
ns. The
s
e
out
brea
ks
occ
u
r every year
due to reass
o
rtm
e
nt and m
u
tations
of
t
h
e vi
rus
wi
t
h
o
u
t
ne
w
vi
r
u
ses
or
i
n
fect
i
o
ns
b
e
i
ng i
n
t
r
od
uce
d
fr
om
bi
rds
[
4
]
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
PH
S I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
0
6
An
al
yzi
n
g
t
h
e
I
m
p
a
ct
s
of
Bi
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
o
n
Bi
odi
versi
t
y
i
n
Gl
o
bal
He
al
t
h
:
A C
a
se
...
. (
M
uhi
ud
di
n
H
a
i
d
er)
10
5
2.
2.
3.
Viruses in
th
e
Cell
The a
v
i
a
n
i
n
fl
uenza
vi
rus
i
s
di
vi
ded
i
n
t
o
ei
ght
se
gm
ent
s
o
f
si
n
g
l
e
st
r
a
nde
d R
N
A, a
n
d
t
h
e
vi
ral
surface a
n
tige
n
s are im
porta
nt
when it c
o
mes to virus e
n
tr
y
into host cells. W
ild
bi
rds are c
o
nside
r
ed t
h
e
nat
u
ral
rese
rv
o
i
r fo
r i
n
fl
ue
nza
A vi
ruse
s bec
a
useal
l
o
f
t
h
e c
u
r
r
ent
l
y
k
n
o
w
n H
A
s
u
bt
y
p
es
(H
1-
H
1
6
)
hav
e
bee
n
det
ect
ed i
n
wi
l
d
bi
rds
,
a
n
d t
h
ere
ha
ve
bee
n
hu
n
d
re
ds
o
f
t
h
o
u
sa
n
d
s
of
i
n
fect
i
o
ns i
n
h
u
m
a
ns t
o
t
h
re
e H
A
subt
y
p
es
(H
1-
H3
)
o
v
er t
h
e
past
10
0 y
e
a
r
s
.
O
v
e
r
t
h
e
pa
s
t
deca
de,
h
u
m
a
n i
n
fect
i
o
ns t
o
H5
N
1
,
H
7
N
7
, a
n
d
H9
N
2
ha
ve ri
sen wi
t
h
bot
h
sym
p
t
o
m
a
t
i
c
and asy
m
pt
om
at
i
c
out
com
e
s. H5
N1
was i
n
t
r
o
duce
d
t
o
h
u
m
a
ns
di
rect
l
y
fr
om
poul
t
r
y
,
an
d
ot
h
e
r H
A
su
bt
y
p
e
s
ha
ve
been
i
n
t
r
o
d
u
ced
t
o
hu
m
a
ns t
h
r
o
ug
h
pi
gs a
n
d
ot
he
r
speci
es
,
whi
c
h
were
i
n
f
ect
ed by
t
h
e
vi
rus
f
r
om
bi
r
d
s
[4]
.
The vi
rus m
u
st interact with recept
o
rs
(rec
o
gnize
d by
the
virus antige
n
s
)
in
order t
o
enter the host
cel
l
.
Ty
pi
cal
l
y
, i
n
fect
i
o
n o
f
L
P
AI
vi
r
u
ses
oc
curs
fol
l
owi
ng
i
ngest
i
o
n
of
vi
rus
-
c
ont
am
i
n
ated m
e
di
u
m
s such a
s
feces and conta
m
inated water. On th
e contrary, HPAI
viruses enc
o
unte
r
changes in amino acids at the HA
cleavage site,
whic
h effects the proce
ss
of s
y
st
em
i
c
repl
i
c
at
i
on.
Acco
r
d
i
n
g t
o
st
udi
es, t
h
e H5
N
1
vi
r
u
se
s t
h
at
h
a
v
e
em
erg
e
d
in
Asia rep
licate
m
o
re efficien
tly in
th
e trachea of ducks
ra
th
er th
an
th
e in
testin
es, and
th
ese
st
udi
es
are
i
m
po
rt
ant
i
n
hel
p
i
n
g
us
u
n
d
erst
and
ho
w t
h
e
vi
rus
s
p
rea
d
s am
on
gst
wi
l
d
bi
r
d
po
p
u
l
a
t
i
ons
suc
h
as
inhalation vs. fecal
[4].
On
ce a v
i
ral strain
g
e
ts in
si
de a h
o
s
t cell, t
h
e po
ssib
ility
o
f
rap
i
d
v
i
ral ev
o
l
u
tio
n
d
u
e
t
o
m
u
tat
i
o
n
is
p
r
esen
t,
and
R
NA v
i
ru
ses h
a
v
e
th
e h
i
gh
est ch
an
ce
of
m
u
tatin
g
d
u
e
t
o
the lack
of
p
r
oo
fread
i
n
g
ab
ility d
u
ring
rep
licatio
n. These m
u
tat
i
o
n
s
can
resu
lt in
mu
ltip
le strain
s
o
f
g
e
n
e
tically
d
i
v
e
rse v
i
ru
ses b
e
ing
iso
l
ated fro
m
an i
n
di
vi
dual
wh
o m
i
ght
ha
v
e
bee
n
ori
g
i
n
al
l
y
i
n
fect
ed
wi
t
h
a si
ngl
e st
rai
n
.
Al
so
, a
ne
w
hy
b
r
i
d
vi
r
u
s ca
n f
o
rm
if the host cell is infected
with two
distinct
viral strains
because
rea
ssort
ment can occ
u
r bet
w
een t
h
e
gene
segm
ent
s
. The
s
e m
u
t
a
t
i
ons i
n
vol
vi
n
g
reass
o
rt
m
e
nt
occur i
n
bi
r
d
s,
h
u
m
a
ns, an
d
ot
he
r s
p
ec
i
e
s [4]
.
A
n
e
x
a
m
ple
of
a m
u
t
a
t
i
on i
s
t
h
e c
o
ncer
n
o
f
H
5
N1
f
r
om
a bi
r
d
i
n
fect
e
d
a
pe
rson t
h
at is
already
infected
with
H3N2
(wh
i
ch
cau
ses the seaso
n
al flu) resultin
g
in
h
i
gh
ly tran
sm
itted
v
i
ru
ses,
wh
ich
has th
e po
ten
tial o
f
b
eco
m
i
n
g
h
i
gh
ly
pan
d
em
i
c
[4]
.
2.
2.
4.
Viruses
on
the
Wing
W
i
l
d
b
i
rd
s
will trav
el sho
r
t and
lon
g
d
i
stan
ces to
seek
ou
t hab
itats th
at are favo
rab
l
e fo
r su
rv
iv
al and
rep
r
o
d
u
ct
i
o
n
.
Any
m
ovem
e
nt
from
one a
r
ea t
o
an
ot
he
r
can res
u
l
t
i
n
t
h
e bi
rd ac
q
u
i
r
i
ng a
v
i
a
n i
n
fl
uenza
vi
r
u
ses. F
o
r e
x
am
pl
e, genet
i
c sim
i
l
a
ri
ti
es
bet
w
ee
n H
P
A
I
H5
N
1
vi
r
u
ses
obt
ai
ne
d
fr
o
m
m
i
grat
i
ng
d
u
ck
s at
Poy
a
n
g
a
n
d
Qi
ng
hai
La
kes i
n
C
h
i
n
a,
w
h
i
c
h a
r
e se
parat
e
d
by
1
7
0
0
km
, pr
ov
i
d
e st
r
o
n
g
e
v
i
d
ence t
h
at
m
i
gr
at
i
n
g
bi
r
d
s can car
r
y
AI vi
r
u
ses
ove
r l
o
ng di
st
ances. T
h
ese i
nve
st
i
g
at
or
s concl
ude
d t
h
at
t
h
e duc
ks sam
p
l
e
d at
Po
yang
Lak
e
were m
o
st lik
ely in
fected
with
v
i
ru
ses
from
lo
cal p
o
u
ltry wh
ile ov
er-win
teri
n
g
i
n
so
u
t
h
e
rn
Ch
in
a [4
].
It is clearly se
en that viruses
tr
avel along
with birds as t
h
ey
m
i
gr
ate. W
i
t
h
th
is in
formatio
n
k
nown,
what
bec
o
m
e
s
of t
h
e vi
ruse
s
as they travel i
s
an im
por
tan
t
q
u
e
stio
n.
When
a
v
i
rus is detected
in
m
i
g
r
ating
b
i
rd
s, it do
es
n
o
t
m
ean
th
at th
e v
i
ru
s
will b
e
in
trod
u
c
ed
in
to
th
e
n
e
w
geo
g
rap
h
i
c area in
wh
ich
th
e
b
i
rd
is
mig
r
atin
g
to.
A ti
m
e
p
e
riod
o
f
3
week
s is
wh
en
ex
po
su
re to
th
e break
of v
i
ru
s sh
ed
d
i
ng
is lik
ely to
occu
r.
There
f
ore,
det
ect
i
on
of
vi
ru
s
e
s i
n
bi
r
d
s
t
h
at
ha
ve
bee
n
res
i
dent
i
n
a
gi
ve
n a
r
ea
fo
r
o
v
er
3
wee
k
s
i
s
l
i
k
el
y
t
o
i
ndi
cat
e t
r
a
n
sm
i
ssi
on i
s
occ
u
r
r
i
ng i
n
t
h
at
area
[
4
]
.
In
Asia, it se
e
m
s th
at in
fected
p
o
u
ltry serv
e as a reservo
i
r with
spillo
v
e
r in
to
the wild
b
i
rd
p
opu
latio
n
.
This can
b
e
seen
fro
m
in
ten
s
iv
e
sam
p
lin
g
fro
m
th
e p
a
st few years wh
ere relat
i
v
e
ly few wild
b
i
rd
s
had
bee
n
i
n
fect
ed, a
n
d m
o
st
o
f
t
h
e
H
P
A
I
H5
N1
i
s
olates ca
me from
sick a
n
d
d
e
ad
w
ild
bir
d
s [4
].
2.
2.
5.
Viruses in
P
o
pulati
o
ns
and
Environmen
t
In
North Am
erica, the prevalence of a
v
ia
n infl
ue
nza
vi
ruses a
p
pears
t
o
be hi
ghest
at
nort
h
er
n
bree
di
n
g
g
r
o
u
nds
whe
n
l
a
rg
e
n
u
m
b
ers of
di
ffe
re
nt
-ag
e
d
bi
r
d
s, o
r
i
g
i
n
at
i
n
g
f
r
om
m
a
ny
di
f
f
ere
n
t
l
o
ca
t
i
ons,
g
a
th
er
an
d r
a
ise yo
ung
. A
s
th
e
b
i
rd
m
i
g
r
ates sou
t
h,
pre
v
alence
decreas
es beca
use
cool and wet c
o
nditions
(com
pared
t
o
o
t
her l
o
cat
i
o
n
s
a
bi
r
d
m
i
ght
t
r
a
v
el
)
fav
o
r
vi
ru
s t
r
an
sm
i
ssi
on [4]
.
In 2
0
0
5
at
Qi
n
ghai
La
ke,
C
h
i
n
a, ov
er 60
0
0
gees
e,
gulls, c
o
rm
orants
, swans a
nd
ducks
died at the
l
a
ke d
u
ri
n
g
M
a
y
and
Ju
ne.
Thi
s
out
brea
k
was
not
ca
use
d
by
a si
n
g
l
e
st
rai
n
of
H
5
N
1
;
i
n
st
ea
d, se
q
u
ence
anal
y
s
i
s
of
1
5
vi
r
u
ses f
r
o
m
6 speci
es
of
wi
l
d
bi
r
d
s s
h
o
w
e
d
t
h
at at least 4
genotype
s
of
H5N1
were a
ssociated
wi
t
h
t
h
e
o
u
t
b
r
eak.
Thi
s
fi
n
d
i
ng a
d
ds t
o
t
h
e g
r
o
w
i
n
g e
v
i
d
ence
t
h
at
a
v
i
a
n i
n
fl
ue
nza
v
i
ruses
m
a
y
not
be
g
e
n
e
tically stab
le in
wild
aquatic b
i
rd
s [4
].
Pou
ltry are u
s
u
a
lly raised
und
er co
nd
ition
s
th
at h
e
igh
t
en
o
ppo
rt
u
n
ities fo
r influ
e
n
za tran
sm
issio
n
,
wh
ich
leads to in
creased
op
po
rt
u
n
ities fo
r
m
u
ta
tio
n
and
reassortm
e
n
t
.
Older
poultry i
n
c
r
eases the cha
n
ce
of
co
n
t
ractin
g th
e v
i
ru
s. Also
, t
he m
a
rket
,
dep
e
ndi
ng
o
n
i
f
i
t
i
s
a l
i
v
e t
r
ade
m
a
rket
or
ot
h
e
r fact
ors
,
ca
n
affec
t
cont
ract
i
on
of t
h
e di
sease [
5
]
.
Th
ese co
nd
ition
s
ex
ist in
eco
l
o
g
i
c settin
gs
wh
ere
wild
b
i
rd
s are co
ncen
trat
ed
at
b
r
eed
i
ng
g
r
ou
nd
s,
i
n
cr
easing
t
h
e c
h
ance
of
vi
rus
tra
n
sm
issio
n
betwee
n s
p
ec
ies [4].
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
06
IJP
H
S V
o
l
.
4, No
. 2,
J
u
ne 2
0
1
5
:
10
2 – 1
1
2
10
6
2.
2.
6
The Ni
dus Concep
t and Critical Contr
o
l
Poin
ts
Th
e n
i
du
s (from
th
e
Latin
wo
rd
for n
e
st) o
f
a
d
i
sease
is
th
e
lo
cation
wh
ere ho
st, p
a
th
og
en,
an
d
en
v
i
ron
m
en
tal
co
nd
itio
ns come to
g
e
th
er t
o
p
r
od
u
ce a
d
i
sease (ou
t
break o
f
a
d
i
sease). Sev
e
ral reso
urces of
evi
d
e
n
ce
have
sho
w
n t
h
at
vi
ral
st
rai
n
s ca
n
be s
u
st
ai
ned
by
t
h
e m
ovem
e
nt
o
f
p
o
u
l
t
r
y
and
p
oul
t
r
y
pr
od
uct
s
with
ou
t th
e in
t
r
odu
ctio
n or
rein
trodu
c
tio
n
fro
m
free-rang
ing
wild
b
i
rd
s [4].
The c
h
a
n
ce
of
hum
an i
n
fect
i
o
n
of
avi
a
n i
n
fl
uenza
i
n
c
r
ease
s
at locations
whe
r
e
fre
quency of contact
o
r
expo
sure t
o
in
fected b
i
rd
s is h
i
g
h
. Th
ese l
o
catio
ns
h
a
v
e
in
creased
op
portu
n
ities fo
r v
i
ru
s tran
sm
issio
n
an
d
ev
o
l
u
tio
n. Rem
o
v
i
n
g
all live b
i
rd
s
fo
r a
certain
am
o
u
n
t o
f
ti
m
e
will
eli
m
in
ate ex
istin
g
v
i
ru
ses i
n
the
envi
ro
nm
ent
[4
]
.
At
t
h
e e
nd
of
t
h
e b
r
eedi
ng
seaso
n
, m
i
grat
i
on
of
birds decreases
the po
pu
latio
n of
th
e br
eed
i
ng
gr
o
u
n
d
s t
hus
l
o
we
ri
n
g
t
h
e a
m
ount
of
vi
rus
t
h
at
she
d
s i
n
t
o
t
h
e e
nvi
r
o
nm
ent
.
Ove
r
se
vera
l
m
ont
hs,
t
h
e a
m
oun
t
o
f
in
fectiv
e
v
i
ru
s in th
e env
i
ron
m
en
t decre
a
ses and abi
o
tic factors
suc
h
as the
heat, tem
p
er
ature, a
nd sol
a
r
radiation “
d
isinfect” t
h
e e
nvi
ronm
ent [4].
W
i
l
d
bi
rds
ser
v
e as a re
ser
v
oi
r
of a
v
i
a
n i
n
fl
ue
nza vi
ruse
s an
d ge
nes t
h
at
can i
n
fect
o
t
her a
n
i
m
al
s
(d
o
g
s, cat
s, pi
g
s
, h
o
rses
, et
c.)
and
h
u
m
a
ns. Al
so, m
i
grat
i
ng bi
r
d
s can s
p
rea
d
vi
r
u
ses t
o
ne
w ge
og
ra
phi
c
areas
.
B
u
t
t
h
e bi
gge
s
t
t
h
reat
t
o
hum
an heal
t
h
com
e
s from
l
o
cat
i
ons w
h
ere h
u
m
a
ns ha
ve al
t
e
red t
h
e ecol
o
gy
of t
h
e
host
,
pat
h
o
g
en
, or e
n
vi
ro
nm
ent
.
Si
nce
hum
ans kee
p
cert
a
i
n
ani
m
al
s nearb
y
for
fo
o
d
o
r
com
p
ani
o
n
s
hi
p,
i
t
i
s
m
o
re lik
ely to
p
i
ck
up
th
e v
i
ru
s
fro
m
th
ese an
im
a
l
s o
v
e
r
wild
b
i
rd
s [4
].
After looking
at patterns a
n
d trends
of
AI t
r
ansm
ission
a
m
ong birds, we
will
look at t
h
e im
pacts of
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
on
t
h
e em
ergence
an
d t
r
a
n
sm
i
ssion
of
i
n
f
ections su
ch
as av
ian in
f
l
u
e
n
z
a.
2.
3.
Biodiversity
and the Emer
gence and Tr
an
smission
of I
n
fecti
o
us
Dise
ases
In
Ju
ne
o
f
20
10
, t
h
e
I
n
t
e
r
g
ove
r
n
m
e
nt
al
Sci
e
nce P
o
l
i
c
y
Pl
at
form
o
n
B
i
odi
ve
rsi
t
y
an
d Ec
osy
s
t
e
m
Ser
v
i
ces (
I
PB
ES)
was e
s
t
a
bl
i
s
hed
t
o
vi
ew
ho
w c
h
a
nge
s i
n
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
affect
hum
ans,
an
d i
t
ha
s
bee
n
not
e
d
t
h
at
h
u
m
a
ns
w
oul
d be dee
p
l
y
affect
ed i
f
t
h
e
r
e were
a lo
ss in
b
i
od
iv
ersity. Setb
ack
s to
eco
s
ystem fu
n
c
t
i
o
n
s
would be
one
of se
veral
noticeable
cha
n
ges [6].
B
i
odi
ve
rsi
t
y
i
nvol
ves t
h
e di
v
e
rsi
t
y
of gen
e
s
,
speci
es, an
d
ecosy
st
em
s, but
due t
o
t
h
e gr
owt
h
of t
h
e
h
u
m
an
po
pu
latio
n
,
a loss of bio
d
i
v
e
rsity h
a
s o
ccurred
.
Th
is lo
ss o
f
b
i
od
iversity h
a
s th
reaten
ed
th
e ex
tinctio
n
of m
a
ny plant
and anim
al species beca
use t
h
e cha
nge
t
o
Ea
rt
h’
s ec
osy
s
t
e
m
and cl
im
ate affects
t
h
e
de
mands
of
f
o
o
d
,
f
r
es
h
wat
e
r,
f
u
el
, a
n
d
ot
he
r re
so
urc
e
s [
6
]
.
C
h
an
ges i
n
bi
odi
versi
t
y
al
so
ha
ve t
h
e
p
o
t
e
nt
i
a
l
t
o
ch
an
ge
di
sease i
n
f
ect
i
on am
on
gs
t
pl
ant
s
a
n
d
anim
a
l
s. Biodi
versity plays t
w
o roles in t
h
e em
ergen
ce a
n
d transm
issio
n
of i
n
fectious diseases
. A
high
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
m
a
y
resul
t
i
n
m
o
re pat
h
o
g
e
n
s, b
u
t
o
n
t
h
e ot
her
han
d
,
bi
odi
versi
t
y
can re
duce
pa
t
h
o
g
en
transm
ission for
diseases that
have
bee
n
l
o
ng esta
blishe
d a
n
d those
that
ha
ve recently
emerge
d [6].
2.
3.
1.
B
i
odi
v
ersi
t
y a
nd
P
a
t
h
o
g
en
T
r
ansmi
ssi
on
Transm
ission of Pat
h
oge
n
s
be
tween
Species
Th
e lo
ss
o
f
b
i
od
iv
ersity can
aff
ect th
e tran
sm
issio
n
o
f
infectio
us
diseases by
changing the
ab
und
an
ce, b
e
h
a
v
i
o
r
, and
con
d
ition
of th
e
h
o
s
t
,
v
ect
o
r
,
o
r
p
a
rasite.
In
recen
t years, it has b
e
en
seen
t
h
at th
e
lo
ss of b
i
od
i
v
ersity u
s
u
a
lly in
creases path
og
en
tr
a
n
s
m
ission and disease incide
nce. Specifica
lly, this
cor
r
el
at
i
on
occ
u
rs
i
n
ec
ol
o
g
i
c
al
sy
st
em
s t
h
at
ha
ve a
vari
et
y
of
pat
h
o
g
e
n
s,
host
s
, ec
osy
s
t
e
m
s
, and t
r
a
n
sm
i
ssi
on
m
o
d
e
s. An
exa
m
p
l
e o
f
th
is i
s
th
e
West
Nile v
i
ru
s
wh
ere
it h
a
s
b
een seen
th
at co
mmu
n
ities in th
e
Un
ited
States with
low av
ian
d
i
v
e
rsity are d
o
m
inated by the s
p
eci
es that sprea
d
t
h
e vi
r
u
s
,
res
u
l
t
i
ng i
n
a
hi
g
h
v
o
l
u
m
e
of
i
n
fect
e
d
m
o
squi
t
o
es a
n
d
h
u
m
a
ns [6]
.
An
ot
he
r i
d
ea h
a
s em
erged
on
ho
w t
h
e l
o
ss
of a speci
es ca
n increas
e the transm
ission of diseases i
n
anot
her
way. T
h
is idea is the
effect of a hi
gher
dens
ity of
a species in a
comm
un
ity, which is com
p
ared and
cont
rasted wit
h
the comm
only kn
own idea of re
duce
d
diversity. It
has bee
n
confirm
e
d from
recent
expe
rim
e
nts that disease tr
ansmission can increase
whe
n
species richnes
s
declines,
ev
en
if th
e ho
st den
s
ity
stays consta
nt.
Although i
f
that species we
re
a host fo
r a
pa
thogen, the
n
the loss
of t
h
at s
p
ecies would
reduce
t
h
e num
ber o
f
host
s
,
whi
c
h
m
eans t
h
e t
r
an
sm
i
ssi
on of
di
sease wo
ul
d
d
ecrease, ass
u
m
i
ng al
l
ot
he
r f
act
ors
rem
a
i
n
const
a
n
t
. Tabl
e 1 o
f
K
eesi
nget
.
al
.,
2
0
1
0
, s
h
ows
se
veral diseases that have inc
r
eas
ed transm
issio
n
due
to
lo
ss of
b
i
od
i
v
ersity [6
].
I
n
con
c
lu
sion
, r
e
du
cing
b
i
od
iv
er
s
ity can inc
r
ease disease t
r
ansm
issi
on when the lost spe
c
ies are not
host
s
f
o
r t
h
e
p
a
t
h
o
g
en
. F
o
r
p
a
t
h
o
g
en
s f
o
r
w
h
i
c
h t
r
ansm
i
ssion
i
s
a f
u
nct
i
o
n
of
h
o
st
de
nsi
t
y
,
l
o
ss
of
di
ve
rsi
t
y
i
s
m
o
st lik
ely to
i
n
crease tran
smissio
n
i
f
th
e lo
ss cau
ses
an
in
crease in th
e
d
i
versity o
f
ad
equate h
o
sts [6
].
Sp
ecies
Div
e
rsity v
e
rsus Sp
ecies Id
en
tity
The tra
n
sm
ission
of disease
is related to
species “r
ichn
ess” an
d d
i
v
e
r
s
ity in
a coup
le of w
a
ys.
On
o
n
e
h
a
nd
, if
a h
o
s
t sp
ecies th
riv
e
s as b
i
o
d
i
v
e
rsity
is l
o
st, th
en
d
i
sease tran
sm
issi
o
n
will in
crease as
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
PH
S I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
0
6
An
al
yzi
n
g
t
h
e
I
m
p
a
ct
s
of
Bi
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
o
n
Bi
odi
versi
t
y
i
n
Gl
o
bal
He
al
t
h
:
A C
a
se
...
. (
M
uhi
ud
di
n
H
a
i
d
er)
10
7
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
de
creases.
O
n
t
h
e ot
her
ha
n
d
, i
f
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
decrease
s
a
n
d
t
h
e
host
speci
e
s
be
gi
ns
t
o
di
e
o
u
t
,
th
en
d
i
sease tran
sm
issio
n
will d
ecrease.
In sev
e
ral cas
e stu
d
i
es, t
h
e sp
ecies th
at are mo
st lik
ely to
red
u
ce
p
a
tho
g
e
n
tran
smissio
n
are mo
st lik
ely to
be lo
st fro
m
ec
o
l
og
ical co
mm
u
n
ities as d
i
v
e
rsity d
eclin
es. For
exam
pl
e, i
n
a
f
i
el
d st
u
d
y
i
n
O
r
eg
o
n
,
US
A,
t
h
e u
b
i
q
ui
t
y
of
h
a
nt
avi
r
us
Si
n
Nom
b
re
vi
r
u
s
rose
f
r
om
2% t
o
14
%
as th
e m
a
mm
a
lian
sp
ecies d
i
v
e
rsity d
e
clin
ed
.
An
ex
pe
rimental study in
Panam
á
was c
o
nducted where the
sm
al
l
-
m
a
m
m
a
l di
versi
t
y
was red
u
ce
d by
t
r
appi
ng a
nd rem
ovi
ng s
p
eci
es t
h
at
are not
h
o
s
t
s for t
h
e vi
r
u
s
,
and i
t
was seen
th
at
th
e red
u
c
ed
-small
ma
mmal
d
i
v
e
rsity cau
se
d an i
n
crease
in the de
nsity of the
host species,
wh
ich
resu
lted
in
an in
crease
o
f
h
a
n
t
av
iru
s
tran
sm
issio
n
[6
].
Div
e
rsity
with
in
Ind
i
v
i
d
u
a
l Ho
sts
Seve
ral recent
studies ha
ve
begun to show t
h
at
changes in the
biodi
versity of
an orga
nism
’s
“m
i
c
robi
om
e” can al
t
e
r pat
h
oge
n t
r
a
n
sm
i
s
si
on. F
o
r exam
pl
e, t
h
e n
u
m
b
er of m
i
crobes
i
n
coral
s
t
h
at
have
whi
t
e
pl
ag
ue
di
sease i
s
di
ff
erent
fr
om
t
h
e num
ber
of
m
i
crobes i
n
healt
h
y coral. A fe
w correlation
studies
h
a
v
e
b
e
en
co
nd
u
c
ted
,
b
u
t
it
h
a
s still b
een
d
i
fficu
lt to
d
e
t
e
rm
in
e wh
eth
e
r ch
ang
e
s in
m
i
crob
ial co
mmu
n
ities
are the cause
or conseque
nce
of infections.
Som
e
experi
m
e
nt
al
st
udi
es h
a
ve cl
eared t
h
i
s
up
by
sho
w
i
ng t
h
at
an i
n
crease
in m
i
crobial biodive
r
sity can i
ndee
d
prot
ect
against i
n
fecti
o
n. For
ex
amp
l
e,
ch
ild
ren with
a
hi
st
ory
o
f
ear
i
n
fect
i
o
n
s
gi
ven a m
i
xt
ure of fi
ve st
rai
n
s o
f
St
re
pt
oc
occu
s
were less lik
ely to
d
e
v
e
lop
sub
s
eq
ue
nt
i
n
f
ect
i
ons c
o
m
p
ar
ed t
o
a c
ont
rol
g
r
o
u
p
.
Al
so
, t
h
e
op
p
o
si
t
e
oc
curs
w
h
e
n
m
i
cro
b
i
a
l
bi
odi
ver
s
i
t
y
i
s
decrease
d
,
whi
c
h is disease transm
ission increases
.
Wh
en
mice with
co
n
s
isten
t
in
fectio
ns o
f
C. d
ifficile
were
treated
with
antib
io
tics th
at red
u
c
ed
th
e in
testin
al
micro
b
e
div
e
rsity, th
ey b
e
g
a
n
sh
ed
d
i
n
g
C. d
ifficile
spores at
h
i
gh
r
a
tes
[6
].
An
ot
he
r
way
t
h
at
hi
g
h
m
i
cr
obi
al
s
p
eci
es
di
ve
rsi
t
y
can
hel
p
pre
v
e
n
t
di
sease t
r
a
n
sm
i
ssi
on i
s
by
pre
v
e
n
t
i
ng t
h
e
col
o
ni
zat
i
o
n
of
t
h
e i
nvas
i
ve pat
h
o
g
e
n
i
c
speci
es.
Fo
r exam
pl
e, t
h
e m
o
re di
ve
r
s
e t
h
e
m
i
crobi
om
e su
rr
ou
n
d
i
n
g t
h
e
r
oot
s
o
f
w
h
eat
pl
ant
s
, t
h
e m
o
r
e
pr
ot
ect
ed t
h
e
pl
ant
s
we
re a
g
ai
nst
i
n
vasi
o
n
by
t
h
e
pat
h
oge
ni
c bac
t
eri
u
m
Pseu
dom
ona
s a
e
ru
g
i
no
sa
[6
].
2.
3.
2.
Biodiversity and
P
a
thogen Emergence
Th
ere are two
h
ypo
th
eses t
h
at relate b
i
o
d
i
v
e
rsity
to disease
transm
ission.
The Am
plification Effect
states that biodiversity and dis
ease tr
ansm
i
ssion
have a p
o
si
t
i
ve cor
r
el
at
i
o
n
,
and the Diluti
on E
ffect states that
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
an
d
di
sease t
r
a
n
s
m
i
ssi
on ha
ve a
ne
gat
i
v
e c
o
r
r
e
l
at
i
on [
6
]
.
It is already known that if an
ecological comm
unity already contai
ns
a pathoge
n
or disease, then
a
lo
ss in
b
i
od
iversity will in
crease th
e
rate o
f
tran
sm
i
ssio
n
[6
]. Bu
t if
a n
e
w
p
a
thog
en
em
erg
e
s, a lo
ss in
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
m
a
y
have
a di
ff
erent
e
ffect
.
F
o
r e
x
am
pl
e, fi
ndi
ng
a n
e
w
h
o
st
f
o
r
a p
a
t
h
o
g
en
i
n
vol
ves
m
u
lt
i
p
l
e
step
s
(su
c
h
as th
e i
n
itial in
v
a
sion
i
n
to
t
h
e n
e
w
h
o
st
,
kn
own
as “sp
ill
o
v
e
r”), eac
h
of
wh
ich
a ch
an
g
e
in
b
i
od
iv
ersity h
a
s a d
i
fferen
t
effect. In
a
recen
t
an
al
ysis, the p
r
o
b
a
b
ility o
f
th
e em
erg
e
n
c
e o
f
p
a
t
h
og
en
s fro
m
wild
life to human
s was po
sit
i
v
e
ly correlated
with m
a
mma
lian
wildlife species
richness [6].
On
ce sp
illov
e
r o
ccurs, a
h
i
gh
d
e
n
s
ity o
f
t
h
e ho
st sp
ecies
m
a
y estab
lis
h
a p
a
t
h
og
en
, an
d
spread
transm
ission a
m
ong the
new
host s
p
ecies.
F
o
r e
x
am
ple, th
e Nipa
h
virus
spilled ove
r
from
wild fruit bats to
d
o
m
estic p
i
g
s
in
Malaysia; h
i
g
h
d
e
n
s
ities of p
i
g
s
in
lo
cal
farm
s ap
p
ear t
o
h
a
v
e
sp
read
estab
lish
e
d p
i
g
-
to
-p
ig
tran
sm
issio
n
,
an
d th
e
p
a
thog
en
th
en
sp
illed
ov
er fro
m
p
i
g
s
t
o
h
u
m
an
s [6
].
After a look a
nd
analysis of the im
pacts
of
bi
odive
r
sity on the em
ergence a
nd t
r
ans
m
ission of
in
fection
s
su
ch
as av
ian
influ
e
n
za, n
e
x
t
we will fo
cu
s o
n
av
ian
in
flu
e
n
za ou
t
b
reak
s in
ch
ick
e
n
s
i
n
B
a
ngl
a
d
esh
.
2.
4.
Avi
a
n I
n
flue
n
z
a Outbreaks
in Chicke
ns in
Ban
g
ladesh
2.
4.
1.
Ma
in Po
int
Th
e inv
e
stig
at
io
n
sh
owed
th
at th
e ep
icen
ter
of th
e
HPAI
ou
tb
reak
s in
Ban
g
l
ad
esh
was th
e
S
a
r
i
s
h
ab
ar
i
up
azila
o
f
Jam
a
l
pur
di
st
ri
ct
,
wi
t
h
t
h
e
pri
m
ary
sou
r
ce
of
i
n
fect
i
o
n
bei
n
g
bac
k
y
a
r
d
chi
c
ken
s
.
Analysis
of the H5N1 isolat
es show
ed “
Q
inghai linea
ge,” closely relat
e
d t
o
vi
r
u
ses i
s
ol
at
ed
fr
om
R
u
ssi
a,
Mo
ng
o
lia, and
A
f
g
h
an
istan. Th
er
ef
or
e, th
e
v
i
r
u
s pr
ob
ab
ly en
ter
e
d
Bang
ladesh
t
h
ro
ugh
m
i
g
r
at
o
r
y
b
i
rd
s
[7
].
2.
4.
2.
Source
s of Outbre
aks
Bangla
d
esh is specifically vul
nera
ble to
virus pe
rpetua
tion because
of
i
n
sufficie
n
t
biosec
urity,
rearing
of ch
ick
e
ns an
d du
ck
s to
g
e
t
h
er, sellin
g liv
e
b
i
rd
s, an
d d
e
ficien
t
d
i
sease su
rv
eillan
ce
[7
].
Th
rou
gh
Ju
ly 1
0
, 2
007
,
52
ou
tbr
eak
s
cau
s
ed
b
y
H
5
N1
wer
e
inv
e
stig
ated
. Th
e
ch
ick
e
ns
w
e
r
e
on
a
farm
, and the
y
were exam
ined
by an
up
azi
l
a
(a l
o
wer ad
m
i
n
i
strativ
e u
n
it of Bang
lad
e
sh
)
v
e
terin
a
rian.
Pret
est
e
d
ques
t
i
onnai
r
es adm
i
ni
st
ered
by
2 vet
e
ri
na
ri
ans
were
used t
o
col
l
ect
i
n
fo
rm
at
i
on ab
o
u
t
t
h
e farm
s
with the infect
ed chicke
ns
. T
h
e veteri
naria
n
s
m
a
de
obse
r
vations about the farm
s and re
corde
d
them
.
They
also
in
terv
iewed
th
e farm
ers an
d
allied
p
e
rsonn
el. Th
ro
ug
h
ano
t
h
e
r questio
nn
aire,
d
a
ta was co
llected
on
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
06
IJP
H
S V
o
l
.
4, No
. 2,
J
u
ne 2
0
1
5
:
10
2 – 1
1
2
10
8
com
m
e
rci
a
l
and bac
k
y
a
r
d
far
m
s and out
bre
a
ks fr
om
t
h
e
upazi
l
a
livestoc
k
offices. T
h
e data can be se
en in
Table 1 of
Bis
w
aset.
al., 2008 [7].
It was hypothesized that the virus cam
e
from
ch
i
c
kens
i
n
near
by
far
m
s. On M
a
rc
h 2
6
, 2
0
0
7
,
out
brea
ks pea
k
ed in
11 affe
cted farm
s in Dha
k
a,
G
azipur, and Na
raya
ngogj. Since a
cluster of i
n
fections
form
ed, the source (a c
o
mm
o
n
source
) m
a
y
have
been la
rger live bird m
a
rkets.
A
m
a
p tr
acking the spre
ad of
HP
AI
o
u
t
b
reak
s i
n
c
h
i
c
ke
ns i
n
B
a
ngl
a
d
esh
c
a
n
be see
n
i
n
F
i
gu
re
2
of B
i
s
w
aset
. al
.
,
20
0
8
[7]
.
Lo
oki
ng at
9
p
o
ssi
bl
e s
o
urces
, eg
g t
r
ay
s a
n
d
cont
am
i
n
at
ed vehicles from
la
rge
r
live
bird
markets and
l
o
cal
l
i
v
e bi
r
d
m
a
rket
s
acc
ou
nt
ed f
o
r
4
7
%
o
f
pr
oba
bl
e vi
rus sources, eggs
for 48%,
an
d h
ealth
y
ch
ick
e
n
s
for
5%. F
o
r bac
k
y
a
rd chi
c
k
e
ns
,
sou
r
ces of t
h
e vi
rus s
p
rea
d
were sel
l
i
ng chi
c
ke
ns (
5
%)
, gi
vi
n
g
chi
c
k
e
ns t
o
rel
a
t
i
v
es
o
r
nei
g
h
b
o
rs
(
1
5
%
)
,
m
ovi
ng bi
r
d
s
t
h
r
o
ug
h
l
o
cal
p
oul
t
r
y
ve
nd
or
s,
an
d hi
di
n
g
bi
r
d
s du
ri
n
g
e
x
t
r
a
c
t
i
n
g
ope
ratio
ns (1
0
%
) [7]
.
In
Jan
u
a
ry o
f
2
008
, a ch
ild
was d
i
agno
sed as
p
o
s
itiv
e for H5N1
b
y
the US Cen
t
ers
for Disease
C
ont
r
o
l
an
d
P
r
eve
n
t
i
o
n, t
h
e
fi
rst
case
of
h
u
m
a
n i
n
fect
i
o
n i
n
B
a
ngl
a
d
e
s
h.
Seve
ral
so
urces
f
o
r t
h
e l
ack o
f
hum
an cases
m
a
y be early im
m
unological
response,
gene
tic variation
in rece
ptors,
poor s
u
rveillance of
di
seases
i
n
hu
m
a
ns, or usi
n
g
ant
i
v
i
r
al
dr
u
g
s whi
l
e
e
x
t
r
act
i
n
g fr
om
bi
rds [
7
]
.
Now t
h
at we
hav
e
an
un
d
e
rst
a
n
d
i
n
g
of
AI
ou
tbreak
s of ch
i
c
k
e
ns in Bang
l
a
d
e
sh
,
we
will fin
a
lly lo
ok
at
t
h
e bi
odi
ver
s
i
t
y
of s
p
eci
fi
c
regi
ons
i
n
B
a
n
g
l
a
des
h
.
2.
5.
B
i
odi
v
ersi
t
y of
B
i
rds o
f
Di
ng
ap
ut
aH
a
o
r and
I
t
s S
u
rrou
ndi
n
g
Area
o
f
Mo
han
g
on
gU
paz
i
l
a
,
Netr
ak
on
a Di
stri
ct
2.
5.
1.
Ma
in Po
int
The q
u
i
c
kl
y
g
r
o
w
i
n
g h
u
m
a
n po
pul
at
i
o
n i
n
B
a
ngl
ades
h
h
a
s
m
a
de drast
i
c
im
pact
s on t
h
e wet
l
a
n
d
biodive
r
sity of the countr
y. Recent devel
o
pments showing a lack of
awareness of the importance
of we
tlands
have
res
u
l
t
e
d i
n
wet
l
a
nd
s
bei
n
g
co
nt
i
n
uo
usl
y
l
o
st
o
r
deg
r
a
d
ed
[
8
]
.
2.
5.
2.
Intr
oduc
tion
A few term
s to be fam
i
liar
with w
h
en stu
d
y
i
ng
th
e eco
s
yste
m o
f
Bang
lad
e
s
h
are be
el (lake-like
wet
l
a
nd
),
ba
or
(o
xb
o
w
l
a
ke
),
and
ha
or
(wet
l
a
nd ec
osy
s
t
e
m
)
. B
a
ngl
ades
h co
nt
ai
ns
1
5
0
speci
es o
f
wa
t
e
rfo
w
l
and 24
species
of m
a
mma
ls [8].
2.
5.
3.
Ma
terials an
d
Me
th
ods
Data tak
e
n
from
a p
r
ev
iou
s
stu
d
y
was taken
in th
e
Netrak
on
a
District in
th
e
Dh
aka d
i
v
i
sion
of
B
a
ngl
a
d
esh
,
fr
om
Jul
y
t
o
Oct
obe
r of
20
1
0
was anal
y
zed t
o
det
e
rm
i
n
e t
h
e bi
rd bi
odi
ver
s
i
t
y
and t
h
e fact
or
s
affect
i
n
g t
h
e
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
.Th
e
bi
ol
ogi
cal
e
nvi
ro
nm
ent
covers
a vast
area
of
fa
unal species, with som
e
wat
e
rf
o
w
l
s
,
bi
rds
,
a
n
d
m
a
mm
al
s have
bei
n
g
d
o
c
u
m
e
nt
ed as
fa
unal
sp
eci
es. The
dat
a
fr
om
t
h
e st
u
d
y
wa
s
col
l
ect
ed di
rec
t
l
y
by
t
a
l
k
i
ng t
o
fi
s
h
erm
e
n an
d fa
rm
ers, an
d
fr
om
seconda
r
y
sou
r
ces s
u
c
h
as fi
she
r
i
e
s
of
fi
ces
and a
g
riculture
offices at MohonganjU
pazil
a
. To see a m
a
p of area t
h
at was a
n
alyzed,
see Figure
1 of Isla
m
et.
al., 2013 [8]
.
2.
5.
4.
Results
and
Discussion
Def
o
re
st
at
i
on has decrease
d
t
h
e
bi
odi
versi
t
y
of
t
h
e
Di
ng
a
put
ah
a
o
r.
Ma
ny of t
h
e aquatic plants t
h
at
were
gr
ow
n i
n
t
h
e area were
used as f
o
od
,
m
e
di
ci
nal
pl
ant
s
, d
u
c
k
fee
d
,
or f
u
el
. 1
9
t
i
m
ber pl
ant
s
, 2
8
fr
ui
t
pl
ant
s
,
1
3
or
na
m
e
nt
pl
ant
s
,
a
n
d
1
1
s
p
eci
es
of m
e
di
ci
nal
p
l
ant
s
ha
ve al
s
o
bee
n
f
o
un
d i
n
t
h
e are
a
.
Al
o
n
g
wi
t
h
m
a
ny
pl
ant
s
p
e
c
i
e
s, 2
4
a
g
ri
c
u
l
t
ural
cr
o
p
s,
1
8
aquat
i
c
we
e
d
s,
and 39 la
nd we
eds
were
rec
o
rded in t
h
e a
r
ea
[8].
Every
wi
nt
e
r
,
m
a
ny
m
i
grat
or
y
bi
r
d
s fl
oc
k t
o
t
h
i
s
hao
r
t
o
m
a
ke a t
e
m
porary
habi
t
a
t
.
T
h
e c
o
m
m
on
n
a
m
e
s fo
r th
e
1
1
m
i
g
r
ato
r
y bird
s are: Fu
lvou
s
Wh
istlin
g-Du
ck
,
Gadwall
,
North
e
rn
Pin
t
ail, Gag
a
n
y
, Co
mm
o
n
Teal, Red-Crested
Po
ch
ard
,
Ferrug
ino
u
s Du
ck, Tu
fted
Du
ck, Little Co
rm
o
r
an
t, and
Pallas’s Fish-Eag
le.
A
m
o
r
e
d
e
tailed
list can
b
e
seen
in
Tab
l
e 9 of
I
s
la
m
et. al., 2013
[
8
].
There
ha
ve be
en 1
8
wat
e
r
f
o
wl
speci
es rec
o
r
d
e
d
, an
d m
i
grat
ory
,
re
si
de
nt
, an
d d
o
m
e
sti
c
wat
e
rf
owl
s
were id
en
tified
in th
e
wetlan
d
area.
Usu
a
l
l
y, d
u
c
k
r
eari
n
g is a
good
practice fo
r wome
n
in
th
e a
r
ea
.
Th
e
co
mm
o
n
n
a
m
e
s fo
r th
e
1
8
waterfowl b
i
rd
s
are: Greylag
Go
o
s
e, Du
ck, Ki
n
g
fish
er, Great
Eg
ret, Cattle
Eg
ret,
Grey
Her
o
n, B
l
ack He
r
o
n
,
Ni
ght
Her
o
n,
St
o
r
k
,
Pl
o
v
e
r
,
He
m
i
pode,
W
a
t
e
r
Pi
pet
,
C
r
est
e
d
Gre
b
e,
Di
ver
,
Whi
t
e
Pelican
, Brown
Fish
Owl, B
r
ah
im
in
y Kite, and
Osprey.
A det
a
i
l
e
d l
i
s
t
of
wat
e
r
f
o
wl
bi
r
d
s ca
n be
s
een i
n
Table 10
of Isla
m
et.
al., 2013 [8].
8 s
p
eci
es
of
ba
nk
bi
r
d
s
we
re r
ecor
d
e
d
i
n
t
h
e
area:
C
o
m
m
on M
y
na, C
o
m
m
o
n
St
arl
i
n
g, B
u
l
b
ul
,
Do
v
e
So
ciab
le Lapwin
g
,
Magp
ie R
o
b
i
n
,
W
oodp
eck
e
r, an
d
W
eav
er.
A
d
e
tailed
list of
b
a
n
k
b
i
rd
s can
b
e
seen
i
n
Table 11
of Isla
m
et.
al., 2013 [8].
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
PH
S I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
0
6
An
al
yzi
n
g
t
h
e
I
m
p
a
ct
s
of
Bi
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
o
n
Bi
odi
versi
t
y
i
n
Gl
o
bal
He
al
t
h
:
A C
a
se
...
. (
M
uhi
ud
di
n
H
a
i
d
er)
10
9
3.
RESEARCH
EFFORTS
T
H
RO
UG
H BI
OTECH
N
OL
OGY
There
are
4 main areas
of bi
otechnol
ogy t
h
at can
di
rectly assist vaccine
devl
opm
ent: Tissue c
u
lture
(
in
vitro
techno
log
i
es
)
,
m
o
lecu
lar
(D
NA)
mar
k
er
technolo
g
y
, m
o
lecu
lar
d
i
agno
stics, an
d
cr
yop
r
e
serv
atio
n
[9]
.
3.
1.
Current Vaccinati
on Me
thods
In a
st
u
d
y
co
n
duct
e
d
by
Swa
y
ne et
. al
. (
2
00
9)
, 3
-
wee
k
-ol
d
chi
c
ke
ns
(
Ga
llu
s d
o
mesticu
s
) (
n
=
11
),
2-
week-o
ld
do
mestic d
u
c
k
s
(
A
nas
pl
at
yrhy
nc
hos
) (
n
= 11
)
,
73
-we
e
k
-
ol
d
repr
o
duct
i
v
el
y
act
i
v
e t
u
rke
y
hens
(
Meleagrisgallopav
o
)
(n
=
9
)
, 3-
w
e
ek-
o
l
d
t
u
rk
ey pou
lts (n
=
11
)
,
and
5-
w
e
ek
-o
ld Japan
e
se
q
u
ail (
C
o
tu
rn
ix
j
a
p
oni
c
a
) (n
= 1
1
) were i
n
tran
asally in
o
c
u
l
ated
with
m
ean chi
c
ken em
bry
o
i
n
fect
i
ous
do
ses
of
A/Mex
i
co
/
4
108
/20
09(H1N1) to
d
e
term
in
e in
fectiv
ity po
ten
tial. Fiv
e
u
n
i
n
f
ected
ch
i
c
k
e
ns,
d
u
c
k
s
, tu
rk
ey
poults, a
nd
quail, as well as three
uni
nfect
ed turkey
he
ns
were c
o
ntact expose
d to i
n
tranasally inoc
ulated
bi
r
d
s t
o
a
ssess
t
r
ansm
i
ssi
on
pot
e
n
t
i
a
l
.
The
obs
er
vat
i
o
n
l
a
st
ed 1
5
day
s
,
w
i
t
h
t
e
st
s t
a
ken
aft
e
r
2,
4,
7, a
n
d
1
0
day
s
[
1
0]
.
Du
ri
n
g
t
h
e
o
b
s
e
rvat
i
o
n
peri
od
of
1
5
day
s
, cl
i
n
i
cal
si
gn
s
di
d
not
de
vel
o
p i
n
any
o
f
t
h
e
bi
r
d
s, an
d
n
o
n
e
of t
h
e
bi
r
d
s
di
ed. T
h
e vi
rus
was n
o
t
hi
ghl
y
pat
h
oge
ni
c f
o
r chi
c
k
e
ns
. N
o
vi
ru
s was i
s
ol
at
ed i
n
chi
c
ke
n eg
gs
fr
om
swabs o
r
t
i
ssues fr
om
chi
c
ke
ns, t
u
r
k
e
y
s, or
du
cks
.
Al
so, al
l
t
h
e c
h
i
c
ke
ns a
nd t
u
rkey
s
were
ne
gat
i
v
e f
o
r
an
tib
od
ies to
t
h
e v
i
ru
s. On
e
in
tran
asally ino
c
u
l
ated
d
u
c
k
had a
hem
a
ggl
ut
i
n
at
i
o
n
i
n
hi
b
i
t
i
on (
H
I
)
ant
i
bo
dy
[1
0]
.
The m
a
in point to takeaway from
this study is
that certai
n
vaccine
s are
still
effective in reducing
cert
a
i
n
di
sease
s
(
H
1
N
1)
i
n
p
oul
t
r
y
,
b
u
t
onl
y
fo
r s
p
eci
fi
c
s
p
eci
es. B
i
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
on
t
h
e
ot
he
r
ha
nd
ha
s m
o
re
v
e
rsatility wh
en
it co
m
e
s to
h
o
w m
a
n
y
species it can
t
r
eat. Also
,
b
i
o
t
ech
no
log
y
’s
results are m
o
re
du
rab
l
e
and long-term
than vaccines
,
whic
h
m
a
y
te
m
pora
r
ily so
lve issues,
but
as seen in the study (conducted in
2
009
), th
e effects still lin
g
e
r.
3.
2.
Met
h
o
d
s In
v
o
l
vi
ng B
i
otech
n
o
l
o
gy
Li
vest
oc
k acc
ou
nt
f
o
r o
v
e
r
hal
f
t
h
e
ag
ri
cu
l
t
u
ral
o
u
t
p
ut
o
f
B
a
n
g
l
a
des
h
.
C
u
r
r
ent
t
e
c
h
n
o
l
ogy
i
s
not
ef
f
i
cien
t en
oug
h
t
o
k
e
ep
u
p
w
ith
th
e i
n
creasin
g
d
e
m
a
n
d
of
an
im
a
l
p
r
odu
cts fo
r
the g
r
ow
ing
popu
latio
n.
B
i
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
on t
h
e ot
her
han
d
has p
r
ov
en t
o
a
dva
nc
e
t
h
e pr
o
duct
i
o
n
an
d
heal
t
h
m
a
nagem
e
nt
of farm
ani
m
al
s as evi
d
ence
d
by
1
1
t
y
pes o
f
vet
e
ri
nary
bi
ol
ogi
cs
t
h
at
have
bee
n
pr
o
duce
d
o
v
e
r t
h
e
y
ears
f
o
r t
h
e
t
r
eatm
e
nt
of
m
a
jor
di
sease
s
am
ong l
i
v
e
s
t
o
ck a
n
d
po
ul
t
r
y
.
Whe
n
l
o
o
k
i
n
g at
fi
sh s
p
eci
es,
m
ode
r
n
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
t
echni
ques
h
a
ve b
een a
b
l
e
t
o
p
r
o
d
u
ce
46
,0
0
0
kg
o
f
di
f
f
er
ent
fi
s
h
s
p
eci
es,
wh
i
c
h i
s
sig
n
i
f
i
can
tly g
r
eater
th
an
th
e 5,00
0 kg
t
h
at are produced via
natural spa
w
ning.
Ani
m
al
genet
i
c
reso
urc
e
s n
eed t
o
be co
nser
ve
d f
o
r
f
u
t
u
re ge
nerat
i
ons
. T
h
e use
of a
r
t
i
f
i
c
i
a
l
rep
r
o
d
u
ct
i
on i
s
a very
usef
ul
t
ool
i
n
t
h
e con
s
er
vat
i
o
n o
f
en
da
n
g
e
r
ed s
p
eci
es.
M
ode
rn
re
pr
o
duct
i
v
e
b
i
o
t
echno
log
i
es, su
ch
as artificia
l in
se
m
i
n
a
tio
n
,
em
b
r
yo tran
sfer,
i
n
vitro
fertilizati
o
n, g
a
m
e
te e
m
b
r
yo
m
i
crom
ani
pul
at
i
on, sem
e
n sexi
n
g
, ge
n
o
m
e
reso
u
r
ce ba
nki
ng a
nd s
o
m
a
t
i
c cel
l
nucl
ear t
r
ans
f
er
(cl
o
ni
n
g
)
,
al
l
have
en
o
r
m
ous p
o
t
e
nt
i
a
l
f
o
r
c
ons
er
vi
n
g
rare
bree
ds
o
f
l
i
v
est
o
ck
.
Biotechnology
can be
use
d
to m
a
ke stronger vacci
nes that are
m
o
re effective tha
n
the traditional
vaccines we have
today. Using vacci
nes c
ontaini
ng live
attenuated
viruse
s can
pre
v
e
n
t very fe
w
diseases.
The ris
k
with
these vacci
nes
is the
chance
that the virus reve
rts
back t
o
a harm
ful state and ca
uses
furthe
r
infection.
Vac
c
ines that
cont
ain inac
t
i
v
at
e
d
vi
r
u
ses
are
al
so a
ri
s
k
beca
use t
h
e
bat
c
h
of
vi
r
u
ses
m
a
y n
o
t
be
fully killed lea
v
ing a
fe
w livi
n
g vi
ruse
s in
the vaccine that
can ca
use i
n
fec
tion
[11].
B
i
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
o
ffe
rs t
h
e
de
vel
o
pm
ent
an
d
pr
o
duct
i
o
n
m
o
re effect
i
v
e
,
sa
fer,
a
nd
c
h
eape
r
vi
ral
vaccines
.
Recom
b
inant DNA t
echnology ha
s
m
a
de highly
purified biol
ogically
ac
tive proteins
pos
sible
for
production on
a large scale. Puri
fied
proteins are esse
ntial for effec
tive
vaccines
,
and DNA technol
ogy has
prim
arily been foc
u
sed
on t
h
e productio
n of protein s
u
bunits to develop vacci
nes
.
Scientists have
bee
n
usi
n
g
DN
A t
ech
n
o
l
ogy
ove
r t
h
e
past
fe
w y
ear
s t
o
fi
n
d
an
exp
r
essi
on sy
s
t
em
t
h
at
wi
l
l
pr
ovi
de t
h
e
pr
ot
ei
n
m
o
d
i
ficatio
n
th
at is si
m
i
lar t
o
n
a
t
u
rally o
c
cu
rring
pro
t
eins, as well as p
r
od
u
ce larg
e
q
u
a
n
tities o
f
d
e
sired
g
e
n
e
pr
o
duct
s
[
11]
.
3.
2.
1.
Mar
k
er
Assisted Selecti
o
n T
echnique
M
a
rke
r
assi
st
ed sel
ect
i
on t
e
c
hni
que i
s
t
h
e
m
o
st
prom
i
s
i
ng t
o
ol
of
bi
ot
e
c
hn
ol
o
g
y
.
DN
A m
a
rkers ar
e
u
s
ed
to
in
crease th
e respo
n
s
e
to
selectio
n
i
n
a p
opu
latio
n.
Molecular m
a
rkers a
r
e se
gm
e
n
ts of pla
n
t DNA t
h
at
bree
ders use t
o
detect the presence or
abse
nce of specific
alleles
in experi
m
e
nt
al pl
ant
s
, t
hus
usi
n
g t
h
em
as
sel
ect
i
on t
ool
s
.
Several
m
a
rker sy
st
em
s, such as R
e
st
ri
ct
i
on F
r
a
g
m
e
nt
Lengt
h Pol
y
m
o
rphi
sm
s (R
FLP
s
) an
d
R
a
nd
om
A
m
pli
f
i
cat
i
on of P
o
l
y
m
o
rp
hi
c DN
As (R
A
P
Ds
), h
a
ve bee
n
de
vel
ope
d an
d ap
pl
i
e
d t
o
a ran
g
e o
f
cr
o
p
species with highe
r
e
fficiency
[12].
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
06
IJP
H
S V
o
l
.
4, No
. 2,
J
u
ne 2
0
1
5
:
10
2 – 1
1
2
11
0
3.
2.
2.
Artificial Inse
minati
on (
A
I)
Artificial in
semin
a
tio
n
is th
e in
trod
u
c
tion
o
f
sem
e
n
i
n
t
o
t
h
e vagi
na o
r
cervi
x of a fe
m
a
l
e
by
any
m
e
t
hod ot
her t
h
an se
xual
i
n
t
e
rco
u
r
s
e [1
3]
. T
h
i
s
m
e
t
hod i
s
use
d
fo
r t
h
e p
u
r
p
o
se o
f
rep
r
o
duct
i
o
n, a
nd i
t
s
m
a
i
n
g
o
a
l is to
q
u
i
ck
ly an
d
efficien
tly p
a
ss on
desirab
l
e ch
aracteristics o
f
a bu
ll o
r
o
t
h
e
r male liv
esto
ck
an
im
a
l
.
Th
is techn
i
qu
e is u
s
efu
l
i
n
liv
esto
ck
farm
in
g
.
AI can
be
use
d
to im
prove re
productive efficiency i
n
farm
an
im
a
l
s. Th
e greatest ad
v
a
n
t
ag
e o
f
artificial
in
sem
i
n
a
tio
n
i
s
t
h
e op
po
rt
u
n
i
t
y
t
o
spread s
u
p
e
ri
or
germ
pl
asm
by
the wi
de
use
of carefully tested a
n
d selected
sites.
3.
2.
3.
Embryo
Tra
n
sfer
(ET)
In
ET, a don
or cow of sup
e
ri
o
r
breed
i
n
g is
ch
em
ical
ly in
d
u
ced to
sup
e
r
o
v
u
l
ate, an
d the fertilized
eggs are the
n
c
o
llected from
the donor and a
r
e subse
que
n
tly tran
sferred
to
recip
i
en
t females, wh
ich
serv
e as
su
rrog
ate m
o
th
ers fo
r t
h
e rem
a
in
d
e
r
of preg
n
a
n
c
y.
Em
b
r
yo
tran
sfer techn
i
qu
es allow top
q
u
a
lity
fem
a
l
e
li
vest
oc
k t
o
ha
ve a g
r
eat
er i
n
fl
ue
nce
on t
h
e
ge
net
i
c
adva
ncem
ent
of a
her
d
o
r
fl
ock
,
an
d i
t
has
been
ap
p
lied to n
e
arly ev
ery sp
ecies of
do
m
e
stic a
n
im
a
l
as
well as m
a
n
y
sp
ecies of
wild
life and
exo
tic an
im
a
l
s [8
].
The
gene
ral e
p
idem
iological aspects of
embry
o
transfe
r
indicate that the
t
r
ans
f
er
of e
m
bry
o
s pr
o
v
i
d
es t
h
e
o
ppo
rt
u
n
ity to in
tro
d
u
c
e g
e
netic
m
a
terial i
n
to
po
pu
lations of liv
est
o
ck
wh
ile
g
r
eatly red
u
c
i
n
g th
e ri
sk
for
tran
sm
issio
n
of in
fectiou
s
d
i
seases.
3.
2.
4.
In Vitro
Fertiliza
t
io
n
In
vitro
fertilizatio
n
(IVF) is
a p
r
o
cess
b
y
wh
ich
eg
g
cells
are fertilized
by sp
erm
o
u
t
side th
e wo
m
b
,
an
d
it is u
s
ed
wid
e
ly to
en
sure a h
i
gh
er
rate o
f
fer
tilizatio
n
and
select desirab
l
e g
e
n
e
tic traits. During
IVF,
u
n
fertilized
egg
s
(oo
c
ytes) rem
o
v
e
d
fro
m
th
e d
ono
r cow’s o
v
a
ries (u
su
ally reco
v
e
ring
6
-
8
u
s
eab
le
o
o
cytes)
matu
re in
an
in
cub
a
tor and
are fertilized
wi
th
sp
erm
.
Fertilized
eg
g
s
are
cu
ltu
red
and
al
lo
wed
to
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
in
vitro
for a
fe
w
days. Em
bryos
at the 8-cell stage (blastocyst
stage)
are t
h
en trans
f
erred
int
o
a
fem
a
le recipient
,
whe
r
e i
m
pl
ant
a
t
i
on a
n
d
em
bry
o
de
vel
o
pm
ent
can
occu
r
[1
4
]
.
3.
3.
Application
o
f
Bio
t
echno
l
o
gy
in
t
h
e Co
nserv
a
t
i
on
o
f
Bi
odiv
ersity
Bio
d
i
v
e
rsity is th
e source fo
r
crop
s and
liv
esto
ck
sp
eci
es
w
h
i
l
e
bi
ot
ec
hn
ol
ogy
pr
o
v
i
d
es t
h
e m
eans of
co
nserv
i
ng
and
streng
th
en
ing
b
i
od
iv
ersity. Mo
st p
l
an
t
a
nd a
n
im
al species from
the earlier ages
ha
ve lost
so
m
e
eco
lo
g
i
cally i
m
p
o
r
tan
t
traits su
ch as resist
anc
e
to pe
sts a
n
d pat
h
oge
n
s, resistance t
o
harsh
en
v
i
ron
m
en
tal
con
d
ition
s
, an
d ad
ap
tation to
v
a
ri
o
u
s so
il and
clim
at
e con
d
ition
s
.
Fro
m
an
econo
m
i
ca
l
standpoint, sta
nda
rds suc
h
as
increase
d
m
ilk and m
eat production of
domestic and farm anim
als as
well as
en
v
i
r
o
n
m
en
tal
co
nd
itio
n
s
are b
e
ing
v
i
ew
ed
as v
e
r
y
i
m
p
o
r
tan
t
, wh
ich
is w
h
y th
e
u
s
e o
f
b
i
o
t
echnolo
g
y
is
d
r
awing
a large in
terest with
its tre
m
en
d
ous p
o
t
en
tia
l for efficient, ecofriendly,
and econom
i
cally
viabl
e
opt
i
o
ns
f
o
r
co
n
s
ervi
ng
bi
odi
v
e
rsi
t
y
.
Bio
t
ech
no
log
y
an
d
b
i
od
iv
ersity d
e
p
e
nd
on
on
e ano
t
h
e
r as bio
t
ech
no
log
y
dep
e
nd
s
o
n
th
e
av
ailab
ility
of nat
u
ral
res
o
urce d
u
e t
o
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
, and
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
depen
d
s o
n
t
h
e m
a
nagem
e
nt
of
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
.
Al
on
g
wi
t
h
i
n
c
r
easi
n
g
pr
od
uct
i
v
i
t
y
and
el
im
i
n
at
i
ng t
h
e
use
o
f
c
h
em
i
cal
s, bi
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
al
so
e
nha
nces
nat
u
ra
l
agr
o
-
bi
ol
o
g
i
cal
sy
st
em
s. It
ha
s
bec
o
m
e
a prefe
r
a
b
l
e
t
ool
t
o
ad
di
ng
co
nse
r
vi
ng
and
st
re
ngt
hen
i
ng
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
, an
d
recent a
dva
nc
es in ge
nom
i
c
,
prote
o
m
i
c, a
nd m
e
tabol
om
ics researc
h
opens up
m
a
ny opport
unities in the
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
f
i
eld
s
asso
ciated w
i
t
h
b
i
o
t
echno
logy [
1
].
4.
RELATIONSHIP TO PUB
L
IC HE
ALTH
Bo
th
b
i
rd
s an
d hu
m
a
n
s
are inv
o
l
v
e
d in
t
h
e
pu
b
lic
h
ealth
con
cern
,
th
erefo
r
e it is i
m
p
o
r
tant to
loo
k
at
bot
h ani
m
al
heal
t
h
and
h
u
m
a
n heal
t
h
. Vet
e
r
i
nari
ans
,
fa
rm
ers, a
nd st
a
k
e
h
o
l
ders a
r
e al
l
i
nvol
ved
wi
t
h
a
n
im
al
h
ealth
issu
es, an
d th
ey are n
e
cessary to
h
e
lp
min
i
mize th
e th
reat
o
f
H5N1
in
hu
m
a
n
s
th
rou
g
h
t
h
e m
a
in
te
n
a
nce
of the
poultry
by m
e
thods s
u
ch as m
onitoring a
n
d co
ntrolling disease
outbreak, im
proving bi
o-sec
u
rity in
p
o
u
ltry pro
d
u
c
tio
n
an
d
t
r
ad
e, and
streng
then
ing
su
rv
eillan
ce m
easu
r
es. In reg
a
rd
s t
o
hu
m
a
n
h
ealth, th
e
Dep
a
rtm
e
n
t
o
f
Health
is essen
tial fo
r con
t
ro
lling
d
i
sease o
u
t
b
r
eak
s
thro
ugh
m
o
n
ito
ri
n
g
t
h
e d
i
sease and
evaluating
dis
ease m
a
nagement. It is
also
critical to in
v
o
l
ve p
h
y
s
i
c
i
a
ns
fr
om
t
h
e pri
v
at
e sect
or a
n
d
heal
t
h
p
r
o
f
ession
als t
o
m
o
n
ito
r d
i
sease ou
tbreaks i
n
th
e hu
m
a
n
po
pu
latio
n [15
]
.
Im
pl
em
ent
i
ng bui
l
d
i
n
g
s
de
di
cat
ed t
o
di
sea
s
e
m
a
nagem
e
nt
sh
oul
d be
a foc
u
s f
o
r re
duci
ng a
n
d
u
lti
m
a
tel
y
eli
m
in
atin
g
av
ian
influ
e
n
za. Train
i
ng
ind
i
v
i
du
als th
at
h
a
ndle p
o
u
ltry m
a
r
k
etin
g or
work
wit
h
health ca
re
will be
neede
d
. Teaching specifi
c techni
que
s,
providing supplies for tr
aini
ng im
provem
ent, and
co
m
p
en
satio
n fo
llo
wi
n
g
cu
lling
o
p
e
ration
s
are cru
c
ial th
roug
hou
t th
e
d
e
v
e
lo
p
m
en
t o
f
th
ese proj
ects
[15].
In
add
ition
to
facilities an
d
t
r
ain
i
ng
sessions d
e
d
i
cated
fo
r th
o
s
e in
vo
lv
ed
in
d
i
sease man
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
and
pre
v
e
n
t
i
o
n
of an a
v
i
a
n i
n
fl
uenza
out
br
eak, rai
s
i
n
g a
w
are
n
ess t
h
ro
ug
h cam
pai
g
n
s
and t
h
e
hel
p
of t
h
e
m
e
di
a i
s
im
port
a
nt
. T
h
e ca
m
p
ai
gns wo
ul
d ad
dre
ss t
h
e
sani
t
a
t
i
on a
n
d
hy
gi
ene
pract
i
ces rega
rdi
n
g
avi
a
n
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
PH
S I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
0
6
An
al
yzi
n
g
t
h
e
I
m
p
a
ct
s
of
Bi
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
o
n
Bi
odi
versi
t
y
i
n
Gl
o
bal
He
al
t
h
:
A C
a
se
...
. (
M
uhi
ud
di
n
H
a
i
d
er)
11
1
in
flu
e
n
za, as
well as th
e ri
sk
fact
o
r
s i
n
vo
lv
ed
with
t
h
e sp
read
o
f
av
ian
influ
e
n
z
a. Along
with
raising
aware
n
ess
,
re
g
u
l
a
t
i
ons
an
d st
anda
r
d
s re
ga
rd
i
ng sa
ni
t
a
t
i
on
and
hy
gi
ene m
u
st
be
i
ssue
d
.
The
fi
nal
i
n
st
a
l
lm
ent
for control and pre
v
e
n
tion of an avia
n influenza
out
brea
k is the use of
vaccines [16]. As
m
e
ntioned in the
pre
v
i
o
us
sect
i
o
n
,
m
oder
n
bi
ot
ech
nol
ogy
a
dva
ncem
ent
s
h
a
ve l
e
d
t
o
D
N
A
m
a
rki
n
g t
e
c
hni
que
s,
w
h
i
c
h
have
devel
ope
d c
h
e
a
per, sa
fer, and m
o
re effec
tive
vaccine
s to prevent
viral i
n
fe
ctions.
5.
CO
NCL
USI
O
NS
In th
e literatu
re rev
i
ew section
,
we loo
k
e
d at ho
w av
ian
i
n
flu
e
n
z
a em
erg
e
s am
o
n
g
b
i
rd
s, ho
w fl
o
c
k
s
of bi
rds t
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
h
e vi
rus
am
ong
ot
he
r f
l
ocks an
d s
p
ec
i
e
s t
h
ro
ug
h m
i
grat
i
o
n pat
t
e
r
n
s, avi
a
n i
n
fl
ue
nza i
n
chi
c
ke
ns i
n
B
a
ngl
a
d
es
h, t
h
e b
i
odi
ve
rsi
t
y
of c
e
rt
ai
n regi
on
s i
n
B
a
n
g
l
a
des
h
,
and t
h
e i
m
pact
s of bi
odi
versi
t
y
on
the em
ergence
and transm
ission
of infectious diseases
. Als
o
,
fr
om
th
e res
earch
efforts th
ro
u
gh bi
ot
ec
h
n
o
l
o
gy
,
we
di
scusse
d
d
i
ffere
nt
m
e
t
hods
of
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
am
ong a
n
i
m
al
s, t
h
e r
o
l
e
o
f
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
ogy
i
n
t
o
day
’
s
wo
rl
d
,
and
h
o
w
bi
ot
e
c
hn
ol
o
g
y
ca
n
be a
ppl
i
e
d
t
o
con
s
er
ve
bi
o
d
i
v
ersi
t
y
. B
a
se
d
on
t
h
e i
n
f
o
rm
at
i
on
di
scusse
d
i
n
t
h
e
p
r
ev
iou
s
section
s
, we will
now
co
m
e
u
p
with
co
n
c
l
u
si
on
s t
o
th
e qu
estion
s
po
sed
in th
e i
n
trod
u
c
tion
.
As m
e
nt
i
oned
earl
i
e
r, t
h
e l
o
s
s
of
bi
o
d
i
v
e
r
si
t
y
t
e
nds t
o
i
n
c
r
ease pat
h
oge
n
t
r
ansm
i
ssi
on and
di
seas
e
incidenc
e. T
h
e
r
e we
re a couple of cases m
e
ntione
d
whe
r
e
th
e op
po
site is tru
e
,
b
u
t
in
t
h
is case, th
e ho
sts v
a
ry
(differe
nt speci
es of birds
)
and the
ecosy
st
e
m
s vary
(di
ffe
r
e
nt
regi
ons
of t
h
e w
o
rl
d a
r
e ef
fect
ed by
A
I).
Goi
n
g
back t
o
the e
x
a
m
ple involving a differe
n
t virus, t
h
e
W
e
st
Nile virus, it is clear th
at com
m
unities in the
United
States with
low av
ian
d
i
v
e
rsity are d
o
m
inated by the s
p
eci
es that sprea
d
t
h
e vi
r
u
s
,
res
u
l
t
i
ng i
n
a
hi
g
h
v
o
l
u
m
e
of
i
n
fect
e
d
m
o
squi
t
o
es a
n
d
h
u
m
a
ns.
W
i
t
h
th
is in
min
d
,
in
creasin
g
t
h
e b
i
od
iversity
wi
t
h
t
h
e hel
p
o
f
bi
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
wi
l
l
reduce t
h
e
transm
ission a
n
d burde
n
of a
v
ian i
n
fl
uenza
in Ba
ngla
d
es
h. The
use
of vaccines
conta
i
ning
purified natural
p
r
o
t
ein
s
m
a
d
e
f
r
o
m
D
N
A
m
a
r
k
er
techno
logy is a r
ealistic so
lu
tion
t
o
th
e
av
ian
i
n
f
l
u
e
n
z
a issu
e i
n
Ban
g
l
ad
esh
.
6.
RECO
M
M
E
N
D
A
TIO
N
S
From
t
h
e answers a
nd c
onc
l
u
si
o
n
s gi
ve
n i
n
t
h
e pre
v
i
o
us
sect
i
on, we h
a
ve a st
ro
ng i
d
ea of
wha
t
sho
u
l
d
be
d
o
n
e
t
o
s
o
l
v
e t
h
e
p
r
obl
em
we are l
o
o
k
i
n
g at
.
N
o
w we
ha
ve t
o
a
ppl
y
t
h
ose i
d
ea
s, w
h
i
c
h
can
b
e
d
one
in
a
few ways.
R
e
search i
n
a
n
im
al
bi
ot
echno
l
ogy
can l
e
a
d
t
o
savi
ng s
p
eci
es of
bi
r
d
s (
d
o
m
est
i
c
, wi
l
d
, o
r
m
i
grat
ory
)
th
at are end
a
ng
ered
o
r
n
e
ar
ex
tin
ction
.
In tu
rn
, th
is
will lead
to a
g
r
eater
b
i
od
iv
ersity, wh
ich
will u
ltimatel
y
l
ead t
o
re
d
u
ci
ng
(e
ve
n el
i
m
i
n
at
i
ng) t
h
e
t
r
ansm
i
ssi
on
o
f
a
v
i
a
n
i
n
fl
uenza
bet
w
ee
n
di
ff
ere
n
t
s
p
eci
es i
n
Ban
g
l
ad
esh. Th
e
u
lti
m
a
te resu
lt of th
is
pro
c
ess will b
e
h
e
alth
y p
o
u
ltry that
will h
e
lp feed
th
e larg
e,
gro
w
i
ng
po
p
u
l
a
t
i
on
o
f
B
a
ngl
a
d
esh
,
as
wel
l
as ec
o
n
o
m
i
c
and s
o
ci
al
bene
fi
t
s
t
o
far
m
ers an
d m
a
ny
ot
he
rs.
D
N
A
r
e
co
m
b
in
an
t techno
logy h
a
s en
or
m
o
us p
o
t
en
tial, and
m
o
d
e
r
n
ad
van
ces in
b
i
o
t
ech
n
o
l
og
y h
a
s
led to the developm
ent of subunit v
accine
s that are cheaper, safer, and
m
o
re effective against di
fferent
diseases tha
n
traditional vaccines.
U
tilizing this technol
ogy
for poultry can
yield prom
is
ing results, leadi
ng t
o
an
in
crease i
n
b
i
od
iv
ersity, an
d u
ltim
ate
l
y red
u
c
i
n
g
th
e
burd
e
n
o
f
th
e av
i
a
n
influ
e
n
za i
n
Bang
lad
e
sh
.
Tw
o areas
o
f
b
i
ot
echn
o
l
o
gy
t
h
at
are s
u
i
t
a
bl
e
fo
r c
o
l
l
a
bo
rat
i
on i
n
devel
opi
ng
co
u
n
t
r
i
e
s ar
e m
e
di
ci
nal
(re
d)
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
a
n
d
en
v
i
ro
nm
ent
a
l
(gr
een)
bi
ot
ech
no
l
ogy
. M
e
di
ci
n
a
l
bi
ot
ec
hn
ol
o
g
y
ha
s
been
u
s
ed t
o
pr
o
duce
h
u
n
d
r
eds
of
di
f
f
ere
n
t
m
e
di
ci
nes ove
r t
h
e
past
few
deca
des
b
y
genet
i
cal
l
y
m
odi
fy
i
ngcert
a
i
n
ge
ne
expressi
ons
a
n
d am
ino acids.
Als
o
, as
mentioned ear
lier in the
pa
per, vacci
nes produce
d
from
DNA
recom
b
inant technology ha
s produce
d
safer, c
h
eap
e
r
, and m
o
re effective res
u
lts against different
diseases.Me
d
icinal biotec
hnology is t
h
e
main area
that is su
itab
l
e for co
llabo
ratio
n
.
Env
i
ro
nmen
tal
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
i
s
used i
n
wast
e t
r
eatm
e
nt
and pre
v
e
n
t
i
n
g p
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
.
Si
nce
t
h
e ecosy
st
em
and en
vi
r
o
nm
ent
are
essent
i
a
l
fo
r
b
i
odi
ve
rsi
t
y
, en
vi
r
onm
ent
a
l
bi
ot
ech
nol
ogy
c
a
n
be u
s
ed t
o
im
pro
v
e t
h
e
bi
odi
versi
t
y
o
f
c
e
rt
ai
n
areas.
It is a
n
interesting are
a
of re
searc
h
,
but m
e
di
ci
nal
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
deal
i
n
g
wi
t
h
a
n
i
m
al
bi
ot
ech
n
o
l
o
gy
sho
u
l
d
be t
h
e
a
r
ea f
o
r c
o
l
l
a
bo
rat
i
o
n
am
ong
d
e
vel
o
pi
n
g
c
o
un
t
r
i
e
s.
Fundi
ng for re
search efforts c
a
n c
o
m
e
from
a va
riet
y o
f
sou
r
ces,
bu
t gov
er
n
m
en
t grants
and re
searc
h
th
ro
ugh
un
iv
ersities are th
e
mo
st su
itab
l
e can
d
i
d
a
tes. Also
, train
i
n
g
facilit
ies n
eed
to
b
e
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
d
to
train
for
d
i
sease m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
an
d
p
r
ev
en
tion
o
f
av
ian
in
fl
u
e
nza
ou
tb
reak
s.
Along
with
train
i
n
g
facilities,
man
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
centers
and ca
m
p
aigns raising a
w
are
n
ess
on
how to
prev
en
t th
e infectio
n and
spread of
av
ian in
fl
u
e
n
z
a m
u
st
co
m
e
a
l
o
n
g
. Med
i
a in
vo
lv
emen
t will h
e
lp
raise awaren
ess
o
f
av
ian
in
fl
u
e
n
za, especially
o
n
th
e prev
en
t
i
o
n
of
transm
ission and ac
quirem
ent of the
vi
r
u
s.
Farm
ers ran
g
in
g f
r
om
backy
a
rd
farm
ers to large
farm
ing g
r
o
u
n
d
s
m
u
st becom
e
inform
ed about
proper vaccina
tion
treatm
e
nts.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.