Int
ern
at
i
onal
Journ
al of Ele
ctrical
an
d
Co
mput
er
En
gin
eeri
ng
(IJ
E
C
E)
Vo
l.
9
, No
.
5
,
Octo
ber
201
9
, pp.
4466
~
44
72
IS
S
N:
20
88
-
8708
,
DOI: 10
.11
591/
ijece
.
v
9
i
5
.
pp4466
-
44
72
4466
Journ
al h
om
e
page
:
http:
//
ia
es
core
.c
om/
journa
ls
/i
ndex.
ph
p/IJECE
Unmann
ed and
au
tonomous g
ro
un
d vehi
cle
S.
Ge
or
ge
Fer
na
n
dez
, K
.
Vi
jay
ak
um
ar, R
.
P
ala
nis
am
y,
K.
Sel
vakum
ar
, D.
K
ar
th
ike
yan,
D.
Selv
ab
h
ar
athi,
S.
Vidyas
agar, V
.
K
alyan
as
un
dhr
am
SR
M
Instit
ute of
Scie
n
ce a
nd
Tec
hnolog
y
,
Ind
ia
Art
ic
le
In
f
o
ABSTR
A
CT
Art
ic
le
history:
Re
cei
ved
Ma
y
3
, 2
01
8
Re
vised
A
pr
22
, 2
01
9
Accepte
d
Ma
y
3
, 2
01
9
Unm
anne
d
and
Autonom
ous
Gr
ound
Vehic
l
e
(U
AG
V)
is
a
sm
art
vehi
c
le
tha
t
ca
pab
le
of
doin
g
ta
sks
without
the
nee
d
of
hum
an
oper
at
or
.
Th
e
aut
om
at
ed
vehi
c
le
ca
n
wor
k
during
off
and
on
roa
d
n
avi
ga
t
ion
and
al
so
use
d
in
m
il
itar
y
oper
ation
such
as
detec
t
ing
bo
m
bs,
borde
r
pa
t
rol,
ca
rr
y
i
ng
c
ar
gos,
sea
rch
,
resc
ue
etc
red
u
c
ing
soldier’s
ex
posure
to
d
anger,
fre
ei
ng
the
m
to
per
form
othe
r
duties.
T
his
t
y
pe
of
ve
hic
l
e
m
ai
nl
y
us
es
sensors
to
observe
the
envi
ronm
ent
an
d
aut
om
aticall
y
ta
ke
decisions
o
n
it
s
own
in
un
pre
dictable
situa
ti
on
and
w
it
h
unknown
in
form
at
ion
or
pa
ss
thi
s
informati
on
to
th
e
oper
at
or
who
c
ontrol
the
UA
GV
thr
ough
var
ious
com
m
unic
at
i
on
when
it
req
uire
s support. T
his UAG
V c
an
send
visual
fee
d
bac
ks t
o
the
oper
at
or
at
th
e
ground
stat
ion
.
An
onboar
d
sen
sor
give
s
the
co
m
ple
te
envi
ron
m
ent
of
th
e
vehi
c
le
as
signa
l
s to
th
e
op
era
to
r.
Ke
yw
or
d
s
:
Un
m
ann
e
d
a
nd
a
uton
om
ou
s
gro
und ve
hicle
NI
visio
n
ac
qu
isi
ti
on
syst
em
NI
visio
n de
ve
lop
m
ent u
nit
Copyright
©
201
9
Instit
ut
e
o
f Ad
vanc
ed
Engi
n
ee
r
ing
and
S
cienc
e
.
Al
l
rights re
serv
ed
.
Corres
pond
in
g
Aut
h
or
:
R. Palanisam
y,
Dep
a
rtm
ent o
f El
ect
rical
an
d
Ele
ct
ro
nics
E
nginee
rin
g,
SRM
I
nst
it
ute o
f
Science
and
Tech
no
l
og
y,
Katt
ankulat
hur
, Ch
e
nnai
, In
dia
.
Em
a
il
:
kr
sp
al
a
ni@
gm
ail.co
m
1.
INTROD
U
CTION
Un
m
ann
e
d
gr
ound
ve
hicle
s
(UGV
'
s)
ar
e
dev
el
op
e
d
for
m
any
app
li
cat
ion
s
s
uch
a
s
the
arm
y
,
in
da
ng
e
r
ou
s
waste
m
anag
em
ent
.
Su
c
h
ap
plica
ti
on
s
ar
e
hav
i
ng
li
m
it
a
tio
ns
on
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
s
w
hich
nee
d
s
nav
i
gation
a
ut
onom
ou
sly
.
U
GV’s
ha
ve
the
po
te
ntial
to
sign
i
ficantl
y
reduce
the
crit
ic
al
m
ist
akes
that
hu
m
an
dr
i
ver
s
m
ake.
The
perform
a
nce
of
t
he
U
GV’s
a
re
al
so
bette
r
tha
n
hu
m
an
dr
ive
rs
because
of
t
he
bette
r
per
ce
ptio
n
an
d
bette
r
decisi
on
m
aking
[1
,
2].
The
capab
il
it
y
of
con
tr
ol
ing
an
aut
onom
ou
s
ve
hicle
is
c
riti
cal
wh
ic
h
can
im
pact
the
pu
blic
acce
ptance
of
a
utono
m
ous
veh
ic
le
s
a
nd
al
so
the
aut
om
ot
ive
industr
y
[3
]
.
Unde
r
these
s
it
uations,
UGV'
s
shou
l
d
be
fur
nish
e
d
wit
h
se
ns
ors
for
s
po
tt
ing
obsta
cl
es.
T
his
pa
per
deals
with
com
bin
at
ion
of
m
echan
ic
al
,
el
ect
ro
nics
,
se
ns
ors,
im
age
proces
sin
g
an
d
com
pu
te
r
visio
n
to
m
ake
the
gro
und
veh
ic
le
m
anu
al
and
a
uton
om
ou
s
en
ablin
g
the
people
safet
y
in
trans
portat
io
n
by
el
im
inati
ng
the
risk
in
volve
d
in
the
t
ran
s
po
rtat
ion
[4,
5]
.
The
UGV
’s
a
r
e
em
bed
ded
with
th
ree
m
ob
il
it
y
le
vels
su
ch
as
te
le
ope
rati
on,
com
pu
te
r
ai
de
d
dri
ving
a
nd
auto
no
m
ou
s
c
on
t
ro
l.
T
he
c
ontr
ol
sta
ti
on
ha
s
the
capa
bili
ty
to
si
m
ultaneou
sly
con
t
ro
l
t
he
op
erati
on
an
d
m
anag
e
UGV’
s
.
They
are
buil
t
to
handle
a
ny
m
issi
on
s’
m
i
ssion
s
s
uch
as
bor
de
r
patr
ol,
su
r
veill
ance
an
d
in
act
ive
com
bat
bo
th
as
a
sta
nd
al
one
unit
and
as
well
as
a
hu
m
a
n
so
ldie
rs
(m
a
nu
al
)
.
An
op
e
rato
r
can
co
ntr
ol
com
f
or
ta
bly
fr
o
m
a
rem
ote
place
wirelessl
y.
Thi
s
syst
e
m
of
ou
rs
has
tw
o
unit
s
-
one
is
the
co
ntr
ol
un
it
(t
o
c
on
tr
ol
m
ob
il
it
y)
and
the
ot
her
is
t
he
m
otion
track
ing
unit
.
Both
these
unit
s
ha
ve
two
m
od
es
-
A
uto
m
at
ic
and
Ma
nu
al
[6
]
.
This
r
obot
w
ou
l
d
be
arm
ed
with
a
n
autom
at
ic
weap
on
m
ounted
on
t
o
a
turr
et
a
nd
a
re
m
ote
op
erato
r
would
be
getti
ng
a
li
ve
vi
deo
feed
from
the
ca
m
era
to
help
him
m
anu
al
ly
con
t
ro
l
bo
t
h
the
a
bove
m
entioned
uni
ts
of
t
he
r
over
. Th
e rover
is
al
so
ca
pab
le
o
f
a
uto
m
at
ic
ally
tr
ackin
g
m
ov
em
ent
of
obj
ect
s
in
it
s
r
ang
e
of
visi
on.
I
n
the
a
uto
m
at
ic
m
od
e,
the
bo
at
us
es
Im
age
P
ro
ce
ssin
g
te
chn
i
qu
es
to
track
m
ot
ion
.
T
he
veh
ic
le
has
G
PS
[7,
8]
na
vi
gation
an
d
c
omm
and
s
to
nav
i
gate
can
be
giv
e
n
wi
re
le
ssly.
Additi
on
al
ly
,
i
nfrar
e
d
se
nsor
s
ai
d
i
n
obsta
cl
e
detect
ion
an
d
path
m
app
i
ng.
The
re
is
on
e
onboa
rd
co
m
pu
te
r,
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
Elec
&
C
om
p
En
g
IS
S
N:
20
88
-
8708
Unm
anne
d and
auto
nom
ous
groun
d
ve
hicle
(
S.Geo
r
ge
Fer
nandez
)
4467
wh
ic
h
receive
s
com
m
and
fro
m
co
m
m
and
center
co
ntr
ol
an
d
issues
c
ommands
to
the
onboar
d
m
ic
ro
con
t
ro
ll
er
for
co
ntro
ll
in
g
the
ste
pp
er
m
oto
rs,
servo
m
oto
rs,
wirele
ss
data
recepti
on,
GPS
nav
i
gation,
an
d
ob
sta
cle
detect
ion
[
9].
The
com
m
and
center
co
ntr
ol
com
pu
te
r
al
lows
the
rem
ote
us
er
to
see
th
e
direct
vid
e
o
stream
and
c
on
tr
ol
t
he
va
rio
us
featu
res
of
the
r
ove
r,
us
i
ng
a
GUI
[
10
]
.
T
his
al
lows
the
us
er
to
acce
s
s
the
ve
hicle
rem
otely
an
d
a
s w
el
l as
with
out ha
nds
on the
steerin
g
a
nd
pe
dd
le
,
which
is
shown i
n
Fi
gu
re
1.
Figure
1. A
utono
m
ou
s
car
2.
PROP
OSE
D APP
ROAC
H
FOR
D
ESI
G
N
IN
G
UGV
The vari
ous te
chnolo
gies i
nvolv
e
d
in
this
U
AVG
a
re as
fol
lows
−
Me
chan
ic
al
de
sign analy
sin
g
−
Ele
ct
ro
nics
−
Con
tr
ol syst
em
−
Im
age p
r
ocessi
ng
−
Com
pu
te
r
visi
on
−
Sensor
fusio
n
−
Ar
ti
fici
al
Intel
li
gen
ce
Lab
View
is
gen
erall
y
us
ed
f
or
data
acqu
isi
ti
on,
instr
um
ent
con
tr
ol,
an
d
industrial
auto
m
at
ion
on
a
var
ie
ty
of
platf
or
m
s
[11,
12]
.
Visio
n
s
of
t
ware use
d
i
n
La
bVIE
W
ha
s the
fo
ll
ow
in
g
c
om
po
nen
ts
.
−
NI
Visio
n Ac
quisi
t
ion
syst
em
−
NI
Visio
n De
ve
lop
m
ent U
nit
−
NI
Visio
n
f
or
Au
t
om
at
ed
In
s
pecti
on
NI
Visio
n
Ac
q
uisit
ion
sya
te
m
is
the
el
e
m
entary
requirem
ent
fo
r
c
reati
ng
vi
sion
kind
of
a
pp
li
cat
io
ns
.
The
NI
Visio
n
s
of
t
war
e
in
cl
ud
es
the
ne
cessary
dr
iv
er
s,
s
uch
as
N
I
–
IMA
Q
a
nd
N
I
–
im
aqdx
.
The
NI
–
im
a
qdx
dri
ver
s
oft
war
e
giv
es
y
ou
the
abili
ty
to
acq
uire
the
i
m
age
with
I
EEE
1394
(f
ir
ewire)
,
Ether
net
an
d
Usb
cam
eras.
Fo
r
m
or
e
a
dv
a
nce
m
achine
vi
sion
im
age
processin
g
yo
u
will
need
NI
Visio
n
Dev
el
op
m
ent
Module
.
H
undreds
of
im
age
processi
n
g
a
nd
m
achine
visio
n
f
un
ct
io
ns
for
la
bv
ie
w
is
a
va
il
able
in
the
Visio
n
dev
el
op
m
ent
m
od
ule.
T
hi
s
m
od
ule
has
patte
rn
m
at
c
hing,
te
xt
ur
e
recog
niti
on
,
c
ountin
g
functi
ons
inbu
il
t
[13
,
14]
.
NI
Visi
on
Bui
lder
is
us
ed
f
or
aut
om
at
ed
insp
ect
io
n,
ga
ug
i
ng,
pa
rt
presence
,
gu
i
dan
ce
,
a
nd
co
un
ti
ng.
T
hi
s
is
exte
rn
al
and
in
de
pende
nt
a
pp
li
cat
ion
f
or
buil
ding
and
m
achine
visio
n
app
li
cat
io
n
w
it
hout
th
e
need
for
pro
gr
am
m
i
ng
N
I
visio
nni
Visio
n
Assist
ant
are
the
to
ol
s
us
e
d
i
n
la
bv
ie
w.
N
I
Visio
n
is
us
e
d
to
create
m
a
chine
visio
n
and
sc
ie
ntific
im
aging
a
pp
li
c
at
ion
w
hich
he
lps
f
or
basic
im
age
analy
sis,
i
m
age
processin
g,
and
m
achine
vi
sion
[
15]
.
NI
Visio
n
too
l
he
lps
to
create
i
m
age
processi
ng
a
nd
m
achine v
isi
on appli
cat
ion
s.
Con
tr
ol,
a
nd in
du
st
rial
au
t
oma
ti
on
on a
var
i
et
y of
platfo
rm
s.
3.
RESEA
R
CH MET
HO
D
F
OR
DESI
GN
AND C
ALC
U
LATION
S
O
F
THE P
ROPOSE
D MO
DEL
This
UAG
V
consi
sts
of
a
ca
m
era,
ultras
on
ic
se
nsor
s,
vid
e
o
tr
a
ns
m
itter
an
d
receiv
er,
Zi
gb
ee
,
high
t
orqu
e
m
oto
rs,
gps
m
od
ul
e,
di
gital
com
pass,
m
ic
ro
pro
cesso
r
a
nd
m
icr
oc
ontrolle
rs
al
l
com
bin
ed,
th
e
data
from
all
the
sensors
a
re
colle
ct
ed
analy
sed
,
fu
se
d,
proces
s
ed
an
d
finall
y
the
lim
it
ed
data
is
sent
to
act
uato
rs.
This
com
bin
at
ion
of
al
l
sens
ors
ena
bles
the
veh
ic
le
to
ta
ke
decisi
on
in
un
pr
e
dicta
ble
an
d
un
known
sit
uation
to take a
r
i
gh
t
dec
isi
on to
n
a
vi
gate aut
onomou
sly
,
S
of
twa
r
e b
ei
ng
us
e
d
–
NI
Lab
V
IE
W
is sh
own
in Fi
gure
2.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2088
-
8708
In
t J
Elec
&
C
om
p
En
g,
V
ol.
9
, N
o.
5
,
Oct
ober
201
9
:
4
4
6
6
-
4
4
7
2
4468
Figure
2. S
of
t
war
e
b
ei
ng u
se
d
–
NI
Lab
V
IE
W
The
c
hassis
of
the
ve
hicle
is
bro
ught
f
ro
m
the
outsi
de
a
nd
a
naly
sed
t
he
com
plete
m
at
hem
atica
l
m
od
el
and
the
m
easur
em
e
nt
s
of
the
ve
hic
le
to
m
ake
a
com
plete
red
esi
gn
in
the
sol
id
wo
r
k
f
or
virtu
al
prototypi
ng
a
nd
m
od
el
in
the
loo
p
[16,
17]
.
This
al
lows
c
heck
i
ng
t
he
co
ntr
ol
syst
e
m
of
the
veh
ic
le
vi
rtuall
y
accor
ding
t
o
t
he
m
echan
ic
al
desi
gn
s
o
t
hat
the
c
ontr
ol
sy
stem
is
tun
e
d
virtu
al
ly
in
hit
an
d
t
rail
ing
m
et
ho
d
with
ap
pro
xim
at
e
par
am
et
ers
from
the
m
e
chan
ic
al
desig
n’
s
pa
ram
et
er
wh
ic
h
is
ext
ra
ct
ed
f
ro
m
the
so
li
d
works.
T
he
el
ect
ronics
in
th
is
are
powe
r
di
stribu
ti
on
bo
a
rd,
protect
io
n
bo
a
r
d,
sa
fety
kill
and
m
oto
r
dr
i
ver
switc
h
a
r
e
m
ajo
r
el
ect
ronics
involve
d
i
n
th
e
U
AGV
[
18
,
19]
.
Th
e
powe
r
distrib
ution
bo
a
r
d
a
nd
pr
otect
io
n
bo
a
r
d
pr
otect
s
the
sen
sors
a
nd
oth
er
lo
gic
c
ircuit
s
f
ro
m
hig
h
volt
age
a
nd
curre
nt.
T
his
al
so
pr
otect
s
r
ever
se
po
la
rity
and
isolat
ion
.
T
he
e
m
erg
ency
an
d
safety
ki
ll
switc
hes
are
of
two
ways,
they
are
m
echan
ic
al
kill
switc
h
a
nd
re
m
ote
kill
switch
.
Kill
switc
he
s
are
ver
y
im
po
rta
nt
in
em
erg
ency
sit
uatio
n
as
the
ve
hicle
consi
sts
of
up
to
50
a
m
ps
.
The
m
otor
dr
i
ver
al
lows
c
ontrolli
ng
the
m
oto
r
f
ro
m
the
m
ic
ro
co
ntr
oller
[2
0,
21]
.
The o
per
at
io
na
l diag
ram
is g
iven
in F
ig
ur
e
3.
Figure
3. O
perat
ion
of m
oto
r c
on
t
ro
l
Im
age
pr
oce
ssing
a
nd
com
pu
t
er
visio
n
play
s
a
vital
par
t
in
this
auto
no
m
ous
na
viga
ti
on.
This
gi
ves
the
com
plete
m
ap
us
in
g
cam
era
an
d
al
so
de
te
ct
s
the
ob
sta
c
le
fo
r
the n
a
viga
ti
on
an
d
decis
ion
m
aking
pu
r
po
s
e.
Wor
king
pr
inci
ple of im
age pr
ocessin
g
a
nd c
om
pu
te
r visi
on
is sh
own
in Fi
gure
4.
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d and
auto
nom
ous
groun
d
ve
hicle
(
S.Geo
r
ge
Fer
nandez
)
4469
Figure
4
.
W
ork
ing
pri
nciple
of im
age p
r
oces
sing an
d
c
om
pu
te
r visi
on
In
this
visio
n
ba
sed
na
vi
gatio
n
m
any
al
go
rithm
s
are
us
ed.
But
the
basic
a
lgorit
hm
is
as
sh
ow
n
in
th
e
char
t.
I
n
a
dd
it
ion
to
this
,
hum
an
bein
g
is
a
lso
detect
e
d
f
or
the
a
uton
omou
s
na
vig
at
i
on
pur
pose,
sea
r
ch
a
nd
rescu
e
. T
he
a
rtific
ia
l i
ntell
ige
nce
prov
i
des
t
he
thin
king
proc
ess to the
v
e
hic
le
, th
is m
ake th
e v
e
hicl
e sm
art
and
intel
li
gen
t
by
choosi
ng
the
s
hortest
path
fro
m
gp
s
an
d
vision
base
d
data
f
or
nav
i
gation
by
var
io
us
al
gor
it
h
m
s
su
c
h
as
Dijkstr
a’s
al
go
rithm
.
The
cal
c
ulati
on
of v
a
rio
us
pa
ram
et
ers
are g
i
ven as
fo
ll
ow a
s;
3.1. Accele
r
ati
on
UAGV
Accele
rati
on
of
U
GV
on
flat
te
rr
ai
n
pr
ob
a
bl
y
wan
ts
the
acce
le
rati
on
to
be
ab
out
half
of
m
axi
m
u
m
velocit
y.
S
o,
i
f
say
U
AGV
velocit
y
is
3
f
eet
per
sec
ond
and
i
f
the
ac
cel
erati
on
is
a
rou
nd
1.5
feet
per
s
q.
seco
nd, th
e
n
t
hi
s w
oul
d
ta
ke
2 seco
nds to
r
ea
ch
m
axi
m
u
m
sp
eed
.
3.2. F
orce
Fo
r
ce = Ma
ss
× Accele
rati
on
Torq
ue
× R
ps
= (Mass ×
A
cc
el
erati
on
×
v
el
ocity
× 2
π)/
Ef
fici
ency
Now,
UAG
V
total
w
ei
gh
t =
9 k
gs
Desire
d velocit
y = 2
m
/s
Desire
d
acce
le
rati
on =
1
m
/ sq
. se
c
Ex
pected e
ff
ic
i
ency =
75 %
Wh
eel
Diam
eter
=
0.2
15 cm
Powere
d w
heels
=
2
= 9 ×
2
×
2
/
2π
= 36 /
6.7
5
= 11.
5 K
g
M
Rps
3.3. A
super
heavy du
ty
D
C
gea
r
m
otor
of
20
0
R
PM
si
de sh
aft
Rpm
–
200 at
10 Volt
s
Vo
lt
age
–
4 t
o 12 V
olts
Stal
l Torque
–
47.19 K
g
Cm
at sta
ll
ing
cu
rr
e
nt of
10.
6 A
Diam
e
te
r
of th
e sh
a
ft
–
8mm
Len
gth
of the
s
haf
t
–
25 to
30 m
m
Assem
bly
of
t
he
Gea
r
–
S
pur
Ty
pe
of
B
rush
–
ca
rbo
n
Total
w
ei
gh
t
–
370 g
ram
s
So
acc
ordi
ng to
m
oto
r
s
pecifi
cat
ion
,
Torq
ue
×
r
ps
=
47.19 ×
3.33
= 15.
7 Kg M
R
ps
Ther
e
f
or
e
Torq
ue
× R
ps
> (Mass ×
Acce
le
rati
on
×
V
el
oc
it
y) / 2π
Ther
e
f
or
e
200
Rpm
h
eavy d
ut
y
m
oto
r
is
suffi
ci
ent for U
AGV.
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4470
3.4. R
unt
im
e
calcula
tion
f
or
UAG
V
Ba
tt
ery us
ed
fo
r
tw
o
m
oto
r
is
11.1 V
,22
00 MAH,
25 C, Zi
ppy Li
poBa
tt
ery.
Now o
ne
m
oto
r
re
quires
10.
6 A at
peak f
or 47.
19 Kg Cm
To
r
que
Ther
e
f
or
e
Ma
xim
u
m
cu
rrent d
ra
wn b
y
2 m
oto
rs
=
21.2
A
The Am
per
e of
the
batte
ry =
2200 M
AH
=
2.
2 A/H
The
C
ou
l
om
b
r
at
ing
of the
bat
te
ry = 25 C
The
m
axi
m
u
m
D
isc
ha
rg
e
of t
he batt
ery =
2.2 × 2
5
=
55
A
So
t
he batt
ery
can
pro
vid
e s
uffici
ent
powe
r t
o
both
the m
oto
rs
.
The
ti
m
e the bat
te
ry w
ould
take c
om
plete
ly
to drain
at 2
.2
A
=
60 Mi
ns
The
ti
m
e the Bat
te
ry w
ould
take c
om
plete
ly
to drain
at 2
1.2
A
=
2.2 ×
60 /
21.2
=
6.22 Mi
ns
Connect
in
g one m
or
e b
at
te
ry
in p
a
rall
el
can give =
6.22×
2 = 1
2.44 Mi
ns
.
4.
RESU
LT
S
AND DI
SCUS
S
ION
The U
AGV ope
rati
on
al
res
ults can
b
e
f
in
d b
y t
wo
m
od
es:
Com
m
and
Cen
tre Co
ntr
ol m
od
e:
Ba
sed
on
the
vi
deo
rec
ord
rec
ei
ved
from
the
on
bo
a
r
d
cam
era
locat
e
d
at
t
he
veh
ic
le
will
be
sent
t
o
the
base
sta
ti
on
wirelessl
y.
F
ro
m
the
inp
uts
,
the
re
qire
d
com
m
and
s
are
sent
to
the
U
AGV
rem
otely
us
i
ng
wireless c
omm
un
ic
at
io
n
te
c
hnologies.
Algorithm
D
es
ign
User side
−
The
m
ov
em
ent of the
v
e
hicle
hav
e
b
ee
n
a
ssingne
d wit
h
th
Up Do
wn Left
and Ri
ght ar
row key
s.
−
The
i
nput (p
res
sed key
)
is
con
ver
te
d
as a
s
pe
ci
al
ch
aracte
r
to
the
A
r
du
i
no
dev
ic
e.
−
The
s
pecial
c
ha
racters se
nt
w
il
l do
the
assi
gned
fu
nction f
or them
.
UAG
V
side
−
The recei
ve
r u
nit i
n
the
UA
G
V
m
on
it
or
s
the
input
receive
d from
the sp
eci
al
ch
aracte
rs
a
nd also
it
acts
as
per the
decisi
on se
nt.
−
Fo
ll
owed
b
y t
he
input the
vehi
cl
e
can m
ov
e t
o
the
forwa
rd,
rev
e
rse, l
eft a
nd
rig
ht
−
The fo
r
ward a
nd r
e
verse
op
e
rati
on u
se
s a C
lock
wise a
nd a
nticl
ockwise
pin
resp
ect
ively
.
−
A
P
ulse
Widt
h
Modula
ti
on (
P
WM)
si
gnal
p
i
n
is assi
gned
for f
or 80
-
120 degrees
’
tu
rn.
Finall
y, a d a
nd
H
-
Bri
dg
e
is u
ti
li
zed
for bra
king
.
The gra
phic
al
us
er
inter
face
(
GUI) f
or com
m
on
centre
c
ontr
ol m
od
e is s
how
n
in
Fig
ure
5
.
Figure
5. G
UI
of unm
ann
ed
s
yst
e
m
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Unm
anne
d and
auto
nom
ous
groun
d
ve
hicle
(
S.Geo
r
ge
Fer
nandez
)
4471
Auton
omo
us
M
od
e
(Mo
de
-
2)
Au
t
onom
ou
s
m
od
e
is
capa
bl
e
of
tra
velli
ng
from
po
int
A
to
po
i
nt
B
without
hum
a
n
na
vig
at
io
n
com
m
and
s.
A
dju
st
strat
egie
s
based
on
surr
oundin
gs
us
i
ng
ob
sta
cl
e
de
te
ct
ion
al
gorithm
s.
It
enab
l
es
an
auto
no
m
ou
s
f
un
ct
io
n
with/wit
hout
the
hum
an
su
pe
r
vi
sion
.
T
his
ope
rati
on
ca
n
be
accom
plish
ed
by
a n
a
vig
at
io
n
te
chnolo
gy s
uc
h as GP
S.
GUI
of unm
ann
ed sy
stem
o
f
a
utonom
ou
s m
od
e is giv
e
n
in
Fig
ure
6
.
Figure
6. G
UI
of unm
ann
ed
s
yst
e
m
au
tonom
ou
s
m
od
e
To
co
ntr
ol
the
m
ov
em
ent
of
the
veh
ic
le
,
it
is
necessary
to
ob
ta
in
t
he
pr
ese
nt
GPS
co
-
ordinates
.
The
Com
pass
locat
ed
in
the
UAG
V
are
us
e
d
to
acq
uire
th
e
data’s
for
th
e
us
er.
By
cal
culat
ing
the
an
gl
es
at
wh
ic
h
it
ori
ent
s
with
t
he
desired
directi
on
by
us
in
g
a
sim
ple
trigon
om
et
ri
c
functi
ons.
T
he
path
plan
ni
ng
is
base
d
on
the
pa
th
fin
der
al
gorithm
s
su
ch
as
sh
ort
est
pat
h
al
gorithm
.
Me
anw
hile,
Ob
sta
cl
e
avo
i
ding
al
gorithm
is
inco
rpo
rated
to
a
vo
i
d
obsta
cl
es
w
hile
do
ing
ta
s
k.
T
his
can
be
done
a
t
hand
i
n
a
m
os
t
ef
fici
ent
m
ann
e
r
base
d
on
t
he
UR
se
ns
ors
va
lues.
T
he
obj
e
ct
detect
ion
a
nd
m
easur
in
g
th
e
distance
bet
ween
the
obsta
cl
e
an
d
the v
e
hicle
is
gi
ven
i
n
the
Fi
gure
7 an
d Fi
gur
e 8
.
Figure
7. O
bje
ct
d
et
ect
ion
Figure
8. Dista
nce
betwee
n
t
wo ob
j
ect
s
us
ing Im
age
Pr
oc
essin
g
5.
CONCL
US
I
O
N
UAG
V
is
a
sm
art
veh
ic
le
w
hi
ch
is
capa
ble
of
dri
ving
wit
hout
a
dr
i
ver
.
Thi
s
can
w
ork
dur
ing
off
an
d
on
r
oad
na
viga
ti
on
.
It
can
a
chieve
t
he
re
duct
ion
of
ro
a
d
acci
den
ts
m
ade
by
hum
an
error,
an
d
al
s
o
us
e
d
in
m
ilit
ary
op
e
rati
on
,
car
ryi
ng
c
argos,
searc
h,
rescu
e
et
c
re
du
ci
ng
so
l
dier’
s
expos
ur
e
to
da
ng
e
r,
f
reein
g
t
hem
to
perform
oth
er
du
ti
es
.
The
operati
on
is
dep
e
nd
i
ng
on
the
s
ens
or
s
to
obser
ve
th
e
e
nv
i
ron
m
ent
al
so
it
re
qires
a
high
ra
nge
of
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
in
fr
ast
r
uctu
r
e.
H
ow
e
ve
r,
it
can
aut
om
at
ic
a
ll
y
ta
ke
decisi
on
s
on
it
s
own
durin
g
any
un
pr
e
dicta
ble sit
uat
ion
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
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S
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:
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In
t J
Elec
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C
om
p
En
g,
V
ol.
9
, N
o.
5
,
Oct
ober
201
9
:
4
4
6
6
-
4
4
7
2
4472
REFERE
NCE
S
[1]
.
L.
H.
Matt
hi
es,
"
Stere
o
vision
for
pla
net
ar
y
rove
rs:
stocha
st
ic
m
odel
ing
t
o
nea
r
rea
l
-
ti
m
e
implementa
ti
o
n,
"
Inte
rnational
Jo
urnal
of
Comput
er
VIsion,
vol
.
8(
1)
,
pp
.
71
-
91
,
Ju
l
1992
.
[
2
]
.
L
.
H
.
M
a
t
t
h
i
e
s
a
n
d
P
.
G
r
a
n
d
j
e
a
n
,
"
S
t
o
c
h
a
s
t
i
c
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
m
o
de
l
i
n
g
a
n
d
e
v
a
l
u
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
o
b
s
t
a
c
l
e
d
e
t
e
c
t
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
w
i
t
h
i
m
a
g
i
n
g
r
a
n
g
e
s
e
n
s
o
rs
,
"
I
E
E
E
T
r
an
s
a
c
t
i
o
n
s
o
n
R
o
bo
t
i
c
s
a
n
d
A
u
t
o
m
a
t
i
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.
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.
[
3
]
.
M.
Drum
hel
le
r
and
T.
Poggio,
"
On
par
al
lel
stereo
,"
In
Proc.
IEEE
Conf.
on
Robot
ic
s
and
Aut
omation,
IEEE,
1986
,
pp.
1439
-
1448.
[
4
]
.
"
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,
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2012.
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(
I
J
E
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C
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)
,
v
o
l
.
11(1),
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1
3]
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p
.
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p
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.
167
–
181,
2015
.
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