Intern
ati
o
n
a
l
Jo
urn
a
l
o
f
E
v
al
ua
ti
o
n
and
Rese
arch in
Education (I
JE
RE)
V
o
l.5
,
No
.1
, Mar
c
h 201
6,
p
p
.
1
~
8
I
S
SN
: 225
2-8
8
2
2
1
Jo
urn
a
l
h
o
me
pa
ge
: h
ttp
://iaesjo
u
r
na
l.com/
o
n
lin
e/ind
e
x.ph
p
/
IJERE
The Retention of Women in
Science, Technology,
Engineering, an
d Math
ematics: A F
r
am
ework f
o
r Persist
e
nce
Jeffry L.
White
1
, G.
H.
Massi
ha
2
1
Department of Educational
Fou
nda
tions
and Le
aders
h
ip,
Univer
s
i
t
y
of
Louisian
a, Lafay
e
tte, USA
2
Department
of I
ndustrial Techno
log
y
, Univ
ersity
of Louisiana, Lafay
e
tte, USA
Article Info
A
B
STRAC
T
Article histo
r
y:
Received Nov 24, 2015
Rev
i
sed
Jan 20, 201
6
Accepted
Feb 26, 2016
Women
make up 47% of the total U.S. wo
rkforc
e, but ar
e les
s
re
pres
ented in
engineering, co
mputer scien
ces, and
the
ph
y
s
ical sciences
. In
ad
dition, race
and ethnicity
are salient
f
a
ctors and minority
wo
men
comprise fewer than 1
in 10 scientist or engineer
. In this pa
per, a revi
ew of the literatu
re is under
taken th
at exp
l
o
r
es the man
y
ch
al
lenges women encounter when pursing a
care
e
r in the s
c
ienc
es
. It inc
l
ud
es
a review of
the nat
i
onal
lan
d
s
cape and
discussion of th
e guiding
gen
e
r
a
l r
e
ten
tion
theories. Fin
a
lly
it proposes a
concep
tual framework for persistence
and prof
fers a number
of resear
ch
questions designed to delve deeper into
the under representatio
n
phenomenon.
Keyword:
Persisten
c
e
Reten
tio
n
STEM
Wom
e
n
Copyright ©
201
6 Institut
e
o
f
Ad
vanced
Engin
eer
ing and S
c
i
e
nce.
All rights re
se
rve
d
.
Co
rresp
ond
i
ng
Autho
r
:
Jeff
ry
L.
White,
Dep
a
rtm
e
n
t
o
f
Edu
cation
a
l Fo
und
atio
ns an
d Lead
ersh
ip
,
Uni
v
ersity
of Louisiana, Lafayette,
Laf
a
yette,
LA 7
050
4, U
S
A
.
Em
a
il: j
w
h
ite1@lou
i
sian
a.edu
.
1.
INTRODUCTION
Acco
r
d
i
n
g t
o
t
h
e Nat
i
o
nal
Sci
e
nce F
o
una
t
i
on,
wom
e
n
earne
d m
o
re t
h
an
5
0
%
of t
h
e ba
chel
or
deg
r
ees y
e
t
are un
der
r
ep
rese
n
t
ed i
n
t
h
e sci
e
nce and en
gi
nee
r
i
n
g wo
r
k
f
o
rce
[1]
.
The
pu
r
p
o
s
e of t
h
i
s
pa
per
i
s
t
o
adva
nce
k
n
o
w
l
e
dge
o
n
wo
m
e
n i
n
t
h
ei
r
pu
rs
ui
t
of c
a
reers i
n
sci
e
nce, t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
gy
, en
gi
n
eeri
n
g
,
a
n
d
math
e
m
atics
(STEM).
It ai
ms to
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
in
fo
rm
atio
n
ab
ou
t
societal and c
u
ltural as
pects as well as attitudi
nal,
characte
r
and educational ac
hievem
en
t in the caree
r selection and pe
rsis
ten
ce in
th
e STEM d
i
scip
lines.The
results ca
n be
use
d
to
devel
op
strategies
for t
h
e su
ccess
f
ul rete
ntion a
nd i
n
creas
ed
graduation rates
.
The
literatu
re rev
e
als a p
l
ethora
o
f
issu
es th
at are critical to
th
e
recru
i
t
m
en
t and
reten
tion
o
f
wo
m
e
n
in STEM [2
],
[3]
.
The
at
t
r
i
t
i
on
of
w
o
m
e
n i
n
STEM
has
bee
n
e
x
t
e
nsi
v
el
y
i
nve
st
i
g
at
ed a
n
d s
o
m
e
m
a
jor
f
i
ndi
n
g
s
are:
Num
e
ro
us
fact
ors
are
i
n
vol
ve
d t
h
at
i
m
pact
t
h
e a
dva
ncem
ent
o
f
w
o
m
e
n i
n
STEM
[4]
,
[5]
.
Qu
alitativ
e stud
ies ind
i
cate th
eir
d
ecision
t
o
p
e
rsist
i
n
STEM is influ
e
n
ced b
y
t
h
e
percep
tion
of self-
efficacy [6].
Oth
e
rs factors affectin
g
p
e
rsisten
ce are po
sitiv
e rela
tion
s
h
i
p
s
with
ad
v
i
so
rs, m
e
n
t
o
r
s, and
in
terest in
STEM classes
[7].
Perso
n
a
l cho
i
ce fo
r leav
ing
is b
e
co
m
i
n
g
m
o
re prev
alen
t in
t
h
e literature [8],[9
].
Wom
e
n m
a
y
need assi
st
ance
t
o
fu
nct
i
o
n i
n
m
i
xed-
gen
d
er
tea
m
s, especially when
dom
inated m
e
n [10]-
[1
2]
.
More sim
i
larities in career aspirations are
found in
ST
E
M
(
m
en and
wom
e
n) t
h
a
n
t
h
e ge
neral
st
u
d
ent
p
opu
latio
n
[1
3],[
10
].
At
t
r
i
t
i
on rat
e
s
are l
a
rge
r
fo
r wom
e
n t
h
an m
e
n [1
3]
an
d pa
rt
i
c
ul
arl
y
du
ri
n
g
t
h
e seco
nd y
ear of c
o
l
l
e
ge and
b
e
yon
d [7
],[14],[
15
].
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:2252
-88
22
IJER
E
V
o
l
.
5,
No
. 1,
M
a
rc
h 20
1
6
:
1 – 8
2
Wom
e
n exhi
bi
t lower self-confi
dence tha
n
males ev
en when academ
ic prepa
r
a
tion a
nd perform
a
nce
are
equal
o
r
s
upe
ri
or
[
16]
.
Professi
onal
role confide
n
ce i
s
a critical fact
or
in
t
h
e
p
e
rsisten
ce of
wo
m
e
n
in STEM
[1
7].
Wo
m
e
n
an
ticip
ate co
nflicts between
work
an
d
fam
i
ly
in
STEM careers a
nd
need s
u
pport to cope with
and
change t
h
ese s
y
ste
m
s [18],[16].
Whi
l
e
m
o
t
i
v
ati
on t
o
im
prov
e t
h
e represen
t
a
ti
on and ret
e
nt
i
on of
wo
m
e
n i
s
st
rong,
i
t
m
u
st
be
em
phasi
zed t
h
at
m
a
ny
of t
h
e underl
y
i
ng di
sci
p
l
i
n
e-speci
fic causes have
not
been ful
l
y
exam
i
n
ed such as i
n
phy
si
cs [1
9]
m
a
t
h
em
ati
c
s [20]
, an
d e
ngi
neeri
ng
[2
1]
.
Thi
s
i
s
t
r
ue e
v
en
whe
n
l
o
n
g
i
t
udi
nal
st
udi
es have
pro
v
i
d
ed cri
t
i
cal
dat
a
about
som
e
of t
h
e pro
b
l
e
m
s
and i
ssues [15]
,[1
3
]
.
Si
nce t
h
e ret
e
nt
i
on and
grad
uat
i
on rat
e
s
of
wom
e
n in STEM will vary based
on
discipline, this
beco
m
e
s a critical co
m
ponent for investigation.
For
exam
pl
e Gi
bb
ons
[2]
fo
un
d
t
h
at
wom
e
n account
ed
for
onl
y
11%
of
t
h
e bachel
or’s
degrees a
w
ar
ded i
n
com
put
er engi
neeri
ng c
o
m
p
ared t
o
43%
i
n
envi
ro
nm
ent
a
l
engi
neeri
ng.
Grad
uat
e
per
f
orm
a
nce was onl
y
sl
i
ght
l
y
bett
er wi
t
h
t
h
e except
i
on i
n
bi
om
edi
cal
engi
neeri
n
g
whi
c
h
had t
h
e
great
est
repres
ent
a
t
i
on of w
o
m
e
n.
McLoughlin’s
[22] qualitative i
nquiry into
gende
r bias
found three distinct predispositions: overt,
covert
, an
d s
u
bt
l
e
.
W
h
i
l
e
t
h
e fi
rst
t
w
o co
u
l
d be ant
i
c
i
p
at
ed, t
h
e l
a
st
was
m
o
re l
a
t
e
nt
. It
i
nvol
ve
d a n
e
gat
i
v
e
feel
i
ng am
ong
wom
e
n i
n
STEM
t
h
at
t
h
ey
shoul
d
be si
ngl
ed
out
f
o
r e
x
t
r
a a
ssi
st
ance. For s
o
m
e
, t
h
i
s
m
a
y
tri
gger
an em
oti
on t
h
at
t
h
ey
are not
as go
od as t
h
ei
r
m
a
l
e
count
erpart
s. Thi
s
l
ogi
c
m
a
y
for
m
t
h
e basi
s of rese
nt
m
e
nt
.
In
co
n
t
rast, Hawk
s an
d Sp
ade’s [16
]
qu
an
titat
i
v
e
stu
d
y
fou
n
d
a clear d
i
stin
ct
io
n
b
e
tween
m
a
le an
d
fe
m
a
le
st
udent
s i
n
regards t
o
bal
a
n
c
i
ng fam
i
l
y
rol
e
s and t
hose of a STEM career. B
o
t
h
st
udi
es hi
ghl
ight
t
h
e
im
port
a
nce of
gi
vi
ng care
f
ul
del
i
b
erat
i
on t
o
t
h
e t
y
pe of sur
v
ey
prom
pt
s and i
n
t
e
rvi
e
w q
u
e
st
i
ons used.
The t
w
o
st
udi
e
s
al
so dem
onst
r
at
e t
h
e pot
ent
i
a
l
of m
i
xi
ng t
h
e t
w
o a
ppr
oach
es. They
p
r
o
v
i
d
e di
rect
i
o
n
for
how the m
e
thods could be
em
ployed in a com
p
lem
e
n
t
ary fashion.
In survey resear
ch, the quantitative
resul
t
s
coul
d
b
e
enha
nced
by
usi
n
g
i
ndi
vi
d
u
a
l
and/
or
foc
u
s g
r
o
u
p
in
terv
iews to
d
i
scu
ss t
h
e resu
lts o
f
the d
a
ta.
Why
do
w
o
m
e
n feel
t
h
e
w
a
y
t
h
ey
do
?
How
m
i
ght
t
h
ese perceptions affect their
choice of care
e
r and
persi
s
t
e
nce
?
D
o
w
o
m
e
n t
h
i
nk t
h
at
m
e
n really
appreci
at
e th
e need to balance career
and f
a
m
i
l
y
?
What
sho
u
l
d
the STEM dis
c
iplines do to
im
prove
the situation?
If women do not feel
they fit
into th
e workplace, what
shoul
d be
do
ne
t
o
bui
l
d
a sens
e of i
n
vol
vem
e
nt
?
2.
CHALLENGES FACED B
Y
WOMEN
W
ith wo
m
e
n
a
cco
u
n
tin
g fo
r l
e
ss th
an
2
5
%
of th
e to
tal STEM wo
rk
fo
rce
[2
3
]
, th
e literatu
re su
gg
ests
the
m
o
st face s
o
m
e
form
of a
dversity in navigating a car
ee
r path [6]. This
see
m
s
to
be pronounced duri
ng the
early college years and includes differen
ces i
n
learning styles [24], lack
of
s
e
lf-confide
n
ce
as com
p
ared to their
m
a
le peers [7], and potentially strong
cultural influences [16].
All of these appear to ha
ve
been exacerbated by
th
e lack
o
f
female ro
le
m
o
d
e
ls
[25
]
.
In a l
o
ngi
t
udi
n
a
l
st
udy
B
r
ai
nard an
d C
a
rl
i
n
[7]
o
b
serve
d
a preci
pi
t
ous
d
r
op
i
n
sel
f-co
n
f
i
d
ence f
o
r
wom
e
n duri
n
g
t
h
e fi
rst
y
ear
wi
t
h
nea
r
l
y
al
l
encount
eri
n
g som
e
barri
ers by
t
h
e
fi
na
l
y
ear. B
r
ai
nard an
d
col
l
eague fou
n
d
t
h
at
m
o
st
non-persi
s
t
i
ng wo
m
e
n l
eave duri
ng t
h
ei
r so
ph
o
m
ore
y
ear. Thi
s
i
s
occurri
ng a
t
a tim
e
when they have the lowest academ
ic self-confidence and ar
e finding
out about acceptan
ce into their academ
i
c
m
a
jor. The reasons gi
ve
n for
swi
t
c
hi
ng (or
dro
ppi
n
g
o
u
t
)
were l
o
ss of i
n
t
e
rest
,
m
o
re appeal
i
ng no
n-
STEM
m
a
jors, an
d di
scoura
g
em
ent
coupl
ed
wi
t
h
t
h
e percept
i
o
n
of l
o
w g
r
ades.
Sel
f-con
fi
denc
e appears t
o
be
a key
vari
abl
e
, wi
t
h
di
vergi
n
g sel
f
-
c
onfi
d
e
n
ce sco
r
es bet
w
een
tho
s
e who
p
e
rsist an
d
switch
e
rs. Th
is d
i
sp
arity was
not correlated with actual pe
rform
ance,
as
m
easured by
GPA.
Ot
her b
a
rri
ers were:
feel
i
ngs of i
s
ol
at
i
on,
discoura
g
em
en
t based upon
grades, poor teaching, and
una
pproachable fa
culty. W
h
ile
many program
s
have
un
dert
aken ef
f
o
rt
s t
o
i
m
prov
e sup
p
o
r
t
net
w
or
ks f
o
r
w
o
m
e
n and sensi
t
i
ze facul
t
y
t
o
t
h
ei
r pers
pect
i
v
es, t
h
e
effort
s
have n
o
t
had d
r
am
at
ic resul
t
s
. In fact
si
nce 199
9 t
h
e
grad
uat
i
on an
d
enrol
l
m
ent
rates have co
nt
i
nued t
o
decline [1].
Still other studies have found that the
low enro
llm
e
nt of wom
e
n in STEM is because
m
a
ny who
ot
herwi
s
e q
u
al
i
f
y
opt
f
o
r s
o
m
e
t
h
i
ng el
se [2
6
]
. Thi
s
fi
ndi
ng
was echoe
d by
R
o
senbl
o
o
m
and c
o
l
l
eagues [
8
]
i
n
whi
c
h
pers
onal
pre
f
erence
wa
s t
h
e l
a
rgest
co
nt
ri
but
i
ng
fact
o
r
f
o
r
wom
e
n ch
oosi
n
g t
o
g
o
i
n
t
o
t
h
e STEM
fi
el
ds.
Self-selection has recently e
m
erged as
a key factor for
not
purs
u
ing a ST
EM
career [27],[9] suggesting
that the
cont
i
nui
ng
i
n
t
e
rest
i
n
STEM
i
s
cent
r
al
fi
gure
t
h
e persi
s
t
e
nce of
wom
e
n [28]
,[2
9
]
.
In exam
i
n
i
ng gende
r-base
d
d
i
fference sever
a
l
i
ndi
cat
o
rs poi
nt
t
o
a decline i
n
t
h
e sel
f
confi
d
e
n
ce of
wo
m
e
n
as th
e
y
p
r
og
ress th
ro
ug
h
STEM co
urses [1
5
]
.
W
o
m
e
n
ten
d
to
rate th
e
m
se
lv
es as l
e
ss cap
ab
le p
r
ob
le
m
-
sol
v
ers wi
t
h
fewer of t
h
em
planni
ng t
o
co
nt
i
nue t
o
gr
a
duat
e
school
.
W
h
i
l
e
wom
e
n seem t
o
i
n
t
e
rnal
i
z
e
fai
l
u
re
and cre
d
i
t
ot
hers wi
t
h
t
h
ei
r su
ccess,
m
a
l
e
s (part
i
c
ul
arly
C
a
ucasi
a
n) t
e
nd t
o
do t
h
e
op
posi
t
e
[3
0]
.
C
onfl
i
c
t
s
bet
w
een wor
k
and f
a
m
i
l
y
have been obser
ved wi
t
h
st
rong ge
nde
r-based di
f
f
ere
n
ces am
ong
STEM
st
udent
s [18]
,[1
6
]
.
Wom
e
n frequent
l
y
cit
e
l
ack of confi
d
e
n
ce and
t
h
e need t
o
bal
a
nce parent
i
ng wi
t
h
career as barriers to success.Men are m
o
re likely
to pr
oject them
s
e
lves into
a s
uper
v
i
s
ory
or execut
i
v
e p
o
s
i
t
i
on
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Th
e
Reten
tion
o
f
Wo
m
e
n
i
n
Scien
ce, Technolo
g
y
, En
g
i
n
eerin
g
,
and
Ma
th
em
a
tics
.... (Jeffry L.
Wh
ite)
3
th
an
wo
m
e
n
.
T
h
ese fin
d
i
n
g
s
su
gg
est th
at
wo
men
in
STEM
an
ticip
ate
wo
rk
co
n
f
licts. Wh
ile b
o
t
h
sex
e
s v
a
lu
e
their careers, wom
e
n have higher values
for
fam
i
ly, particularly parenting responsibilities.
Gende
r di
ffe
rences are not
l
i
m
it
ed t
o
career and fam
i
ly iss
u
es. Am
br
ose
et
al
., [6]
foun
d t
h
at
wom
e
n
(m
ore so than
men) feel that their pr
ofessi
o
n
m
u
st
be ben
e
fi
ci
al
t
o
soci
et
y
.
Tal
e
nt
and
t
r
ai
ni
ng al
one
are n
o
t
suffi
ci
ent
for s
u
ccess. Thi
s
m
a
y
expl
ai
n why
wo
m
e
n out
n
u
m
b
er
m
e
n i
n
som
e
of t
h
e bi
ol
ogi
cal
sci
e
nces and
environm
enta
l fields or
des
c
ribe teaching as a source
of satisf
action even when t
h
eir careers a
r
e not
traditionally as
sociated
with
ed
u
catio
n
.
On the surface it
may see
m
that s
ituational factors should
propel wom
e
n to be
m
o
re successful in
college than
men. Many are
as well
prepared as
m
e
n and have
m
o
re early
su
ccess in
d
i
ca
to
rs lik
e p
a
ren
t
s with
col
l
e
ge degree
s, equal
o
r
hi
g
h
er S
A
T sco
r
es, hi
gh
sch
ool
t
e
st
scores [1
5]
and co
ncept
u
al
un
derst
a
ndi
n
g
of t
h
e
scien
ces [3
1
]
. Desp
ite wh
at sh
ou
ld
be an ad
vant
age, i
n
m
a
ny
cases wo
m
e
n do
not
per
f
or
m
as well
as
men t
hus
creat
i
ng l
o
wer
ret
e
nt
i
on rat
e
s [32]
,[
33]
,[
1]
. Thi
s
poi
nt
t
o
war
d
a di
ver
g
ence
i
n
t
h
e STEM
aspi
rat
i
ons of
m
e
n
and w
o
m
e
n an
d bel
i
e
fs about
t
h
ei
r own co
m
p
et
ence t
h
at
m
a
y be rel
a
t
e
d
t
o
cul
t
u
ral
and soci
et
al
di
fferences
[34]
.
3.
RETENTION THEORY
There a
r
e a num
b
er of the
o
retical perspec
tives ab
ou
t p
e
rsisten
ce in
colleg
e
settin
g
s
th
at can
b
e
di
vi
de
d i
n
t
o
t
w
o s
o
m
e
what
u
n
i
q
ue a
nd
o
v
erl
a
ppi
n
g
cam
ps, de
vel
o
pm
ent
a
l
and e
c
ol
ogi
ca
l
.
The
devel
opm
ent
a
l
st
ancec
om
e fr
om
C
h
i
c
keri
ng
’s
vect
ors
of
de
vel
o
pm
ent
[
3
5]
an
d
San
f
o
r
d
i
n
t
e
g
r
at
i
o
n
-
di
ffe
re
nt
i
a
t
i
on
t
h
eo
ry
[3
6]
.
At
t
h
ei
r c
o
re i
s
t
h
e i
d
ea t
h
at
st
ude
nt
s
go t
h
ro
u
gh a
p
r
oces
s of e
s
t
a
bl
i
s
hi
ng a
n
d
th
en
reestab
l
i
s
h
i
ng
eq
u
ilibriu
m
as th
ey
m
o
v
e
th
ro
ug
h co
lleg
e
life.Th
is con
c
ep
t, co
m
i
n
g
fro
m
th
e
gr
o
u
n
d
b
rea
k
i
n
g wo
rk
o
f
Ku
r
t
Lewi
n [
37]
, posi
t
s
t
h
at
as
a
cadem
ic and s
o
cial challenge
s
arise, a
n
i
ndi
vidual
pr
ocesses a
n
d
com
e
s t
o
t
e
rm
s wi
t
h
t
h
em
and
read
j
u
st
s
hi
s or
he
r pe
rso
n
al
bal
a
nce
i
n
rega
r
d
t
o
what
i
s
hap
p
e
n
i
n
g.
C
h
i
c
keri
ng
[
3
5]
p
r
o
p
o
ses
se
ven
v
ect
or
s
up
on
w
h
i
c
h
t
h
i
s
subt
l
e
m
echan
i
s
m
i
s
based:
com
p
et
ence,
e
m
o
tio
n
a
l m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
, au
to
no
m
y
,
in
terp
erso
n
a
l relation
s
hip
s
, id
en
tity, cl
arificatio
n
o
f
pu
rpo
s
e, and
p
e
rson
al
i
n
t
e
gri
t
y
. Si
m
i
l
a
rl
y
,
Kol
b
[
3
8]
l
o
o
k
e
d
at
ho
w st
u
d
e
n
t
s
go t
h
r
o
ug
h a
pr
o
g
ressi
on
o
f
devel
opm
ent
fr
o
m
co
n
c
rete th
ink
i
n
g
to
co
n
s
i
d
eratio
n
of
m
u
ltip
le issu
es an
d
solu
tio
n
s
to
pro
b
l
e
m
s d
u
r
ing
th
e co
lleg
e
ex
p
e
ri
en
ce.
In e
ssence
,
t
h
e
st
ude
nt
beco
m
e
s
m
o
re re
fl
ect
i
v
e an
d m
a
ture i
n
t
h
ei
r t
h
ou
g
h
t
p
r
oc
esse
s.
Al
l
of
t
h
ea
ut
h
o
r
s
i
n
co
rp
orat
e t
h
e
i
d
ea
of
a c
ont
i
n
u
u
m
as st
ude
nt
s m
a
t
r
i
c
ul
at
e an
d
becom
e
ol
der
.
In
co
nt
rast
,
T
i
nt
o’s
st
u
d
e
n
t
en
gagem
e
nt
[3
9]
,[
4
0
]
,
Ast
i
n’s
st
u
d
e
n
t
i
n
vol
vem
e
nt
[41]
,
[
4
2
]
,
a
n
d
B
r
o
n
fe
n
b
re
nne
r cam
pus ecol
o
gy
[4
3]
m
odel
s
, ha
ve m
o
re of
an en
vi
r
onm
ent
a
l
pers
pect
i
v
e fo
r ret
e
nt
i
on
or i
t
s
co
un
terpo
i
n
t
, attritio
n
.
Th
e co
n
t
ex
t aro
und
th
e stud
en
t,
institu
tio
n
,
acade
m
i
c d
i
scip
lin
e, p
e
ers, attitud
e
, and
q
u
a
lity o
f
in
teractio
n
b
e
tween
stud
en
ts and facu
lty p
l
ay
a
m
a
j
o
r ro
le in th
e p
e
rsisten
c
e d
ecisio
n
toward
a
deg
r
ee i
n
gene
ral
o
r
a
de
gree
i
n
o
n
e
’
s c
h
o
s
e
n
a
r
ea.
Th
e two
stan
ces o
v
e
rlap
in
the v
a
lu
e o
f
in
teracti
on i
n
t
h
e re
t
e
nt
i
on eq
uat
i
o
n. Fo
r exam
pl
e, fo
r
m
a
ny
stu
d
e
n
t
s,
g
ood in
ter
actio
n
w
ith
f
acu
lty enhan
ces th
e lik
el
ih
oo
d
o
f
r
e
m
a
in
in
g
i
n
school [
4
4
]-[4
7
]
. St
u
d
e
n
t
s
percei
ve i
t
as havi
ng
hi
g
h
e
r
im
port
a
nce
.
Si
m
i
l
a
rl
y
,
wom
e
n ex
hi
bi
t
c
h
ar
act
eri
s
t
i
c
s sim
i
l
a
r t
o
t
h
ose f
o
un
d i
n
o
t
h
e
r
un
d
e
r
r
e
pr
esen
ted
gr
oups su
ch
as con
c
er
n
s
o
v
e
r
stud
en
t-
f
a
cu
lty r
e
latio
n
s
h
i
p
s
an
d
per
s
on
al id
en
tit
y. Th
e
n
eed fo
r in
terperson
a
l affiliatio
n seem
s to
b
e
in
fl
u
e
n
tial in
reg
a
rd
s t
o
stayin
g in
STEM.
Oth
e
r stream
s o
f
t
h
oug
h
t
are
also
app
a
ren
t
i
n
th
e
literature [48
]
-[50
]. Fo
r ex
am
p
l
e, Kuh
an
d
Lov
e
[5
1]
su
gge
st
ed
cul
t
u
ral
p
r
op
osi
t
i
ons t
h
at
g
ove
r
n
o
r
at
least affect deci
sions t
o
pe
rsis
t. One is whe
n
the
sen
d
i
n
g cul
t
u
r
e
(wh
e
re t
h
e
st
ude
nt
i
s
com
i
ng from
)
i
s
sim
i
l
a
r t
o
t
h
at
of t
h
e re
cei
vi
ng e
nvi
ro
nm
ent
(un
i
v
e
rsity). Th
is typ
e
of env
i
ro
n
m
en
t p
r
om
o
t
es an
easie
r adju
stm
e
n
t
fo
r the stud
en
ts an
d
lead
s to
b
e
tter
reten
tion
[5
2
]
.
Tied
in
to
th
is l
o
g
i
c is th
at women
in
m
a
th
an
d
scien
ce courses will b
e
fewer in
n
u
m
b
e
r [48
]
,
[53
]
-[55
]. Sm
aller class sizes
may b
e
p
a
rticularly relev
a
nt t
o
them
at the s
t
art of
their ac
adem
ic career
whe
r
e
th
e attitu
d
e
t
o
p
e
rsist m
a
y b
e
seriou
sly affected
.
Th
is cou
l
d
b
e
attenu
ated as th
e stud
en
t
g
o
e
s beyon
d the first
year.
Sey
m
o
u
r
an
d
Hewitt [56
]
h
a
v
e
raised
a serio
u
s
issu
e -
wh
en
so
m
e
stu
d
e
n
t
s ch
an
g
e
m
a
j
o
rs to
n
on-
STEM fields,
many faculties view it
as
appropriate. The students
are
se
en as
not academi
call
y
strong
enough
fo
r the rig
o
r
s
and dem
a
nd
s that science-related fiel
ds requ
ire or th
ey lack
th
e requ
isite ed
u
c
atio
n
a
l
back
g
r
o
u
nd
[
5
3]
,[
54]
,
[
5
7
]
-
[
5
9
]
.
Whi
l
e
som
e
of
t
h
i
s
t
y
pe
of t
h
i
n
ki
n
g
m
a
y
be acc
urat
e,
i
t
al
so re
veal
s
a bi
as
th
at do
es no
t
fu
lly ho
ld
.
Seym
o
u
r
and Hewitt fo
und
t
h
at a p
e
rcen
tag
e
o
f
th
e stud
en
ts
wh
o ch
ang
e
d
maj
o
rs,
had t
h
e aca
de
mic abilit
y to succeed in
STEM disciplines.
That would indicat
e there is
a partial disc
onnection
b
e
tween
th
e percep
tion
o
f
facu
lty an
d th
e stud
en
t
’
s actu
a
l
cap
a
b
ilities.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:2252
-88
22
IJER
E
V
o
l
.
5,
No
. 1,
M
a
rc
h 20
1
6
:
1 – 8
4
4.
THE PERSISTENCE FRAMEWORK
The guidi
ng
principles for t
h
e co
ncept
u
al
m
odel
present
e
d i
n
Fi
g
u
re
1
i
s
em
bedded
i
n
Pre
n
zel
’s
[28
]
,[29
] m
o
d
e
l o
f
p
e
rsisting
i
n
terest and
Kuh
an
d Lo
v
e
’s
[5
1
]
cu
ltural pro
p
o
s
ition
s
that
tak
e
in
t
o
acco
u
n
t
th
e
societal and cultural biases that l
ead unde
rre
prese
n
ted st
udents towa
rd lo
wer rete
ntion rates.Additionally, the
co
n
t
ribu
tio
n of stud
en
t in
teractio
n
with
facu
lty h
a
s
b
e
en well do
cu
m
e
n
t
ed
[6
0
]-[62
],[56
]
,[45
] and
wou
l
d
i
n
cl
ude
A
s
t
i
n
’s
[
42]
fram
e
wor
k
fo
r st
ude
nt
e
nga
gem
e
nt
.
Fi
gu
re 1.C
onc
ept
u
al
M
odel
Th
e em
erg
e
n
c
e o
f
p
e
rsisten
c
e as a k
e
y v
a
riab
le, p
a
rticu
l
arly as it relates
to
th
e reten
tion
of wo
m
e
n
,
is app
a
ren
t
from
th
e literatu
re [6
3
]-[70
],[46],[71
],[7
2
]
.
Al
o
n
g
t
h
o
s
e lin
es
, th
e
prim
ary t
h
eoretical fram
e
work
is
Pre
n
zel’s [28],[29] persistence of
academ
ic
interest m
ode
l, base
d
on four
prece
pts:
Po
sitiv
e
p
l
easan
t attitu
d
e
abou
t th
e acad
em
i
c
area
o
f
in
terest;
Hi
g
h
deg
r
ee of
abs
o
r
p
t
i
o
n,
c
o
ncent
r
ation, or commitmen
t to
th
e area
o
f
i
n
t
e
rest;
Being c
h
allenged
by the
rigor of the
academ
ic disciplin
e
(t
hey s
h
ould nei
t
her
be t
o
o eas
y nor t
o
o ha
rd
but
som
e
thing that
can
be
overc
o
me);
Recognize gains
i
n
prof
iciency an
d m
a
ster
y
.
Using
th
is m
o
d
e
l,
Wh
ite an
d co
lleagu
e
s [73
]
stud
ied
p
e
rsisten
ce in
th
e
STEM d
i
sci
p
lin
es
[74
]
-[76
]
and
f
oui
nd i
t
t
o
be
hi
ghl
y
p
r
edi
c
t
i
v
e wi
t
h
persi
s
t
e
r
s
an
d
appl
i
cabl
e
wi
t
h
w
o
m
e
n o
n
s
e
veral
poi
nt
s.
Fi
rst
,
any
o
n
e o
p
t
i
ng
fo
r t
h
e i
n
t
e
nsi
t
y
of st
udy
i
n
S
TEM
wo
ul
d be
ant
i
c
i
p
at
ed t
o
have a co
rres
p
on
di
n
g
hi
gh i
n
t
e
rest
in
th
e related co
urse
wo
rk
. For th
e seco
nd
p
r
e
m
ise, it is n
o
t
ab
le th
at t
h
ere
is
a con
s
isten
c
y in
th
e research
th
at
success
f
ul ST
EM students s
p
end m
o
re time per wee
k
tha
n
non-pe
rsisters in studying. These aspects coul
d be
attain
ed
as
p
a
rt of th
e ex
it in
terv
iew for ind
i
vid
u
a
ls
t
h
at
are
dr
o
ppi
ng
o
u
t
o
r
s
w
i
t
c
hi
n
g
out
o
f
ST
EM
.
The third and fourth
prem
ises are
closely associated and ha
ve prom
is
e for researc
h
ers
.
The dropout
rate in
STEM o
ccurs m
o
st o
f
ten
d
u
ring
th
e
first two
years o
f
co
lleg
e
. This
m
a
y
o
ccu
r
wh
en
stud
en
ts m
o
v
e
fr
om
l
o
wer t
o
hi
g
h
er l
e
vel
S
TEM
cou
r
ses
whi
c
h ha
ve a heavy
em
phasi
s on sol
v
i
n
g i
n
creasi
ngl
y
co
m
p
l
e
x
problem
s
. These problem
s often are c
o
m
p
licated, com
i
n
g
from
real worl
d exam
pl
es. They are typically
m
u
ltifaceted and
re
quire a c
o
here
nt underst
andi
ng
of th
e
problem
and how it m
i
ght be resol
v
ed. T
h
is is one
o
f
th
e m
o
st critical p
o
i
n
t
s at wh
ich
p
e
rsisten
c
e or attritio
n o
c
cu
rs.
4.
1.
Prospec
t
ive
Research Ques
tions
So
m
e
p
o
t
en
tial research
qu
estio
n
s
h
a
ve evo
l
v
e
d
fro
m
th
e literatu
re and
und
erp
i
n
t
h
e
co
n
c
ep
t
u
al
fram
e
wor
k
pre
s
ent
e
d
i
n
t
h
i
s
pape
r. Deri
ve
d
fr
om
earl
i
e
rs
st
udi
es [4
6]
,[
47]
,
[
7
3
]
,
t
h
ey
are
re
fl
ect
ed
i
n
t
h
e
p
e
rsisten
ce literatu
re
[6
3
]-[71
] and
po
in
t t
o
ward
fu
rt
h
e
r
in
qu
iry. More in
fo
rm
atio
n
is n
e
ed
ed
abo
u
t wh
at
pr
om
pt
s wom
e
n t
o
ent
e
r ST
E
M
, i
n
fl
ue
nces
t
h
ei
r deci
si
o
n
s
to stay or leave, their
pe
dag
o
g
i
cal
expe
ri
enc
e
s i
n
Pren
z
e
l’s
Con
d
i
tion
s
for P
ers
is
t
i
n
g
I
n
teres
t
Positive/pl
easan
t
at
titud
e
about th
e
acad
em
ic area of
int
e
rest;
High degree of
absorption,
concentratio
n/
c
o
mmi
tme
nt
t
o
t
h
e a
r
e
a
of i
n
te
re
st
;
Feel
challeng
ed
b
y
the rigor
of
th
e di
sciplin
e (
t
hey
should
neither
be too
eas
y
nor too h
a
rd bu
t
something that
can be over
c
ome)
;
Sees
them
selves
m
a
king
gains in profici
e
nc
y in th
e
ar
ea
of inter
e
st
.
Re
te
ntion
Retention
is influenced
b
y
student d
e
velop
m
ent which
is
affec
t
ed
b
y
in
ter
act
ion with
th
e
institut
i
on,
fa
cul
t
y
,
et
c.
(Chicker
ing& Sanford)
S
i
milarit
i
es
Student in
ter
action recur
r
ing
them
e
Retention and
d
e
velopment are
influen
ced b
y
in
t
e
rac
tion wi
th
others and
fit with the
environment. (Tinto,
Astin&Bronfenb
r
enner)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Th
e
Reten
tion
o
f
Wo
m
e
n
i
n
Scien
ce, Technolo
g
y
, En
g
i
n
eerin
g
,
and
Ma
th
em
a
tics
.... (Jeffry L.
Wh
ite)
5
t
h
e cl
assr
oom
, and
rec
o
m
m
e
ndat
i
o
ns
fo
r c
h
an
ges i
n
t
h
e
cl
assro
o
m
and
wo
r
k
en
vi
r
o
n
m
ent
[1
8]
. So
m
e
ot
he
r
lin
es of
q
u
e
stion
i
ng
in
cl
u
d
e:
Do th
e cu
ltural and
so
cietal no
rm
s in
flu
e
n
c
e th
eir
d
ecision
to
p
e
rsist in STEM
?
What as
pects of involvem
en
t (
i
n
f
or
m
a
l
so
cial n
e
tw
or
ks, f
a
cu
lty su
pp
ort and enc
o
ura
g
em
e
n
t, etc.) seem
to
b
e
m
o
st con
duciv
e fo
r wo
m
e
n
to p
e
rsist in
STEM
?
How do wom
e
n view fac
u
lty,
teaching
assist
ant,
a
n
d s
upe
rvisor
fee
dbac
k
a
n
d interaction
?
Why do wom
e
n (especially
those wh
o are well-qualifie
d)
l
eave
STEM
?
Why
d
o
wom
e
n
m
ove
i
n
t
o
a
n
d out
o
f
ST
EM
?
What
roles do
pers
onal fact
ors play in
t
h
e c
h
oi
ce o
f
w
o
m
e
n t
o
depa
rt
ST
E
M
?
How
do thei
r e
xpe
riences
affe
ct their
c
hoi
ces
t
o
depa
rt
or st
ay
i
n
STEM
?
5.
RECO
M
M
E
N
D
A
TIO
N
S
Th
e t
h
eoretical fram
e
wo
rk
presen
ted
in th
i
s
p
a
p
e
r will ad
v
a
n
ce t
h
e ex
i
s
tin
g
kn
owledg
e
b
a
se
for
wo
m
e
n
in
terested
in pu
rsu
i
n
g
STEM careers. An
i
n
ve
stig
atio
n
i
n
to th
e
p
e
rsisten
ce
p
h
e
nomen
o
n
will enh
a
n
ce
t
h
e researc
h
and e
ducat
i
o
n i
n
f
r
ast
r
uct
u
re and i
m
prov
e t
h
e un
derst
a
ndi
n
g
of
ho
w w
o
m
e
n de
vel
o
p a sense
o
f
pu
r
pose a
n
d
b
ecom
e
engage
d i
n
t
h
e cl
assr
oom
. C
o
m
p
reh
e
nsi
o
n
of al
l
t
h
e reas
ons
w
h
y
t
h
ey
d
o
n
o
t
pe
rsi
s
t
i
n
can
bro
a
d
e
n
particip
atio
n
and
tap
in
to
a so
urce of ta
len
t
n
o
t
yet fu
lly
realized
[2
].
Th
e im
p
o
r
tan
c
e o
f
persiste
nce cannot be underst
ated due to its linkage
w
ith academ
ic invol
vem
e
nt [42]
and effect on the sense
of purpose
nee
d
ed for acade
m
ic success [40]. Si
nce th
e
c
o
nnection
bet
w
een pe
rsistence and
retention
was
i
d
ent
i
f
i
e
d [
4
7]
and l
i
nke
d t
o
t
h
e
m
a
jor ret
e
nt
i
on t
h
e
o
ri
es [4
6]
, i
t
s
rol
e
wi
t
h
w
o
m
e
n has onl
y
had a
curs
o
r
y
in
sp
ection
[77
]
. A m
o
re tho
r
o
ugh
inv
e
stig
atio
n
is warran
t
ed
. Th
e co
n
c
ep
tu
al
m
odel
pr
esent
e
d i
n
t
h
i
s
pap
e
r
p
r
ov
id
es a framewo
rk
fo
r inv
e
stig
ating
th
e ro
le th
at so
cietal ex
p
ectatio
n
s
and
attitu
d
e
h
a
v
e
in
th
e decision
m
a
ki
ng
of
w
o
m
e
n. The
res
u
l
t
s
coul
d y
i
el
d usef
ul
i
n
fo
rm
at
i
on t
h
at
w
o
ul
d i
n
c
r
ease t
h
e
recr
ui
tm
ent
,
re
t
e
nt
i
o
n
,
an
d p
a
rticip
atio
n of
wo
m
e
n
i
n
STEM.
6.
CO
NCL
USI
O
NS
How can
investig
ato
r
s ascertain
in
fo
rm
atio
n
abo
u
t
the p
e
rsisten
c
e facto
r
s presen
ted
in
th
is
fram
e
wo
rk
?
Th
ey can
b
e
g
i
n
b
y
ask
i
n
g
if
data are co
llected
an
d
ev
alu
a
t
e
d
b
y
reten
tion
practitio
n
e
rs. If
no
t
,
th
ey shou
ld
b
e
in
corp
orated in
to
t
h
e
p
r
og
ram
s
d
e
sig
n
e
d to i
m
p
r
ov
e t
h
e
reten
tio
n of
women
in
STEM. Any
activ
ities th
at ev
ok
e unp
leasan
t feeli
n
g
s
sho
u
l
d
b
e
scru
tinized
an
d tho
s
e th
at are
p
o
sitiv
e, exp
a
n
d
e
d
.
Th
ey
sh
ou
l
d
also
em
p
h
a
size ti
me
m
a
n
a
g
e
m
e
n
t
activ
ities to
h
e
lp
m
a
in
tain
th
e fo
cu
s and
con
cen
t
r
atio
n
requ
ired
in
these c
o
urses.
There is a ri
gor in t
h
e STE
M
fields that som
e
st
udent
s
m
a
y
not
ful
l
y
app
r
eci
at
e. T
h
i
s
sh
o
u
l
d
be
m
o
n
ito
red
p
a
rticu
l
arly du
ri
n
g
th
e early co
lleg
e
years.
Th
is is no
t t
o
im
p
l
y
th
at th
e cu
rricu
l
u
m
sh
ou
ld be voi
d
of
ri
g
o
r
o
us c
o
urses
b
u
t
rat
h
e
r
ascert
a
i
n
i
f
st
ude
nt
s
reco
g
n
i
ze t
h
e
di
ffi
c
u
l
t
y
and t
i
m
e com
m
itm
ent
s
requi
re
d t
o
be success
f
ul.
Assessm
ents of proficienc
y shoul
d also
occur
outsi
de of the classroom
.
For exam
ple,
researc
h
er
s co
ul
d em
pl
oy
a
hol
i
s
t
i
c
assess
m
e
nt
whi
l
e
st
udent
s
were:
(a
)
part
i
c
i
p
at
i
ng i
n
STEM
co
ur
s
e
s, (b
)
co
m
p
letin
g
assig
n
m
en
ts,
(
c
)
meetin
g
w
ith
p
r
o
f
essor
s
,
(
d
) in
ter
actin
g
w
i
th
o
t
h
e
r
stud
en
ts,
(
e
)
stud
yin
g
,
(f)
wo
rki
n
g o
n
g
r
ou
p p
r
oject
s
,
and
(g
) l
earni
ng
new c
o
nce
p
t
s
. Thi
s
i
n
f
o
r
m
at
i
on coul
d be use
d
t
o
e
v
al
uat
e
pr
o
g
ress
an
d a
s
p
o
t
e
nt
i
a
l
p
r
o
b
l
e
m
i
ndi
cat
or
s.
Whe
n
use
d
i
n
c
once
r
t
wi
t
h
ot
he
r a
p
p
r
oac
h
es, t
h
ese
assess
m
e
nt
s
co
u
l
d
g
o
a long
way to
im
p
r
ov
e th
e reten
tion
o
f
wo
m
e
n
in
th
e STEM
d
i
scip
lin
es.
REFERE
NC
ES
[1]
National Science Board
,
“Scien
ce
and Eng
i
neer
ing I
ndicators 2
014”, Arlington
VA,
National Science Foundatio
n
(NSB 14-01), 20
14.
[2]
Gibbons, MT., “The
y
e
ar
in nu
mbers: Profiles
of engin
eering
and engin
eering
technolog
y
”
,
Am
erican Society fo
r
Engineering
Education
, 2006. Retrieved
fro
m
http://www.asee.org/publications/p
rofiles/uplo
a
d/2006ProfileEng
.
pdf.
[3]
Grose, TK., “Tr
ouble on
th
e horizon”,
Prism
, vol/issue: 16(2), pp.
26-31, 2006
.
[4]
Wa
c
h
s,
FL
.,
Nemi
ro,
J.
, “Spe
aki
ng out on g
e
nder: Reflec
tions on women’s advancement in
the STEM
disciplin
es”,
Journal of Women an
d Minorities
in
S
c
ien
c
e and Eng
i
neering,
vol/issue: 13(1)
, pp
. 77-
94, 2007
.
[5]
Wentling, R
., C
a
macho, C
., “Women engineers: Factors a
nd obstacles related
to
the pursuit of a
higher degr
ee in
engineering”,
Jo
urnal of Women
and Minorities
in Science and
Engineering
,
vol/issue: 14(1),pp
.
8
3
-118, 2008
.
[6]
Am
bros
e, S
., Lazarus
, B
., Nair
, I., “
N
o univer
s
al cons
tants
:
J
ourne
y
s
of wom
e
n in engineer
ing and com
puter
science”,
Journal
of Engineering Education
,
vo
l/issue: 87(4),pp
.
3
63-368, 1998
.
[7]
Brainard
, S., Carlin
, L., “A six-
y
ear long
itudina
l stud
y
of undergraduate women in
engineering an
d
science”,
Journal
of Engineering Education
,
vol/is
sue: 87(4),p
p. 36
9-375, 1998
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:2252
-88
22
IJER
E
V
o
l
.
5,
No
. 1,
M
a
rc
h 20
1
6
:
1 – 8
6
[8]
Rosenbloom, JL., Ash, RA., Dupont, B.,
Cod
e
r, L., “Wh
y
are there so few wo
men in information techno
lo
g
y
?
Assessing the role of personality in career cho
i
ces”,
Journal of Economic Psycho
l
ogy,
vol/issue: 29
(4),pp. 543-554
,
2008.
[9]
Wai, J., Lubins
ki, D., Benbow, CP., Steiger
,
JH., “Accomp
lishments in science, tec
hno
log
y
, engineering, an
d
m
a
them
atics (STEM) and its rela
tion to STE
M
e
ducation
a
l dose: A 25-y
e
ar longitudinal stud
y
”
,
Journal of
Educationa
l Psychology
, vo
l/issue: 102(4)
,pp. 86
0-871, 2010
.
[10]
Laes
er
, M
.
, M
o
s
k
al,
BM
.,
Knec
ht, R
.
,
Las
i
ch,
D., “
E
ngin
eerin
g design: Examining th
e impact
of gender
and
th
e
team’s gend
er
composition”,
Jou
r
nal of
Engineering Edu
c
ation
,
v
o
l/issue: 9
2
(1),p
p
. 49-56
, 2003
.
[11]
Pierce
, RL.
,
La
tz
, AO., Adam
s,
CM., “
C
al
cul
a
te
the possibiliti
es: A case stud
y
”
,
Journal of Women and Minorities
in Science and
Engineering
,
vol/issue: 15(4),pp
.
3
23-342, 2009
.
[12]
Virnoche, ME.,
“Expandi
ng gir
l
s’ horizons: Str
e
ngthen
i
ng persistence in
the early
math and
science educatio
n
pipelin
e”,
Journal of Women and
Minorities
in
Science and
Engin
eering,
vol/issue: 14(1),pp
.
29
-48
,
2008
.
[13]
Hecht, LF
.
,
P
i
ne
lli, T
E
.
,
Barcl
a
y, RO.
,
Kenne
d
y
,
JM., “
B
ecom
i
ng an aerospace eng
i
neer
: A cross-gender
com
p
aris
on”,
Jou
r
nal of
Engineering Edu
c
ation
,
v
o
l/issue: 8
4
(3),p
p
. 263-270
, 199
5.
[14]
Bes
t
erfi
eld-S
acr
e, M
., M
o
reno,
M
., S
hum
an,
LJ
.,Atm
an, CJ
.,
“
G
ender and ethnici
t
y
d
i
ffer
e
n
ces
in fres
h
m
e
n
engine
ering stud
ent at
titud
e
s: A cross-institution
a
l stud
y”
,
Journa
l of Engin
eering
Education
,
vol/issue: 90(4),pp.
477-489, 2001
.
[15]
F
e
lder, RM
.
,
F
e
lder, G
N
.
, M
a
u
n
e
y
, M
.
, H
a
m
r
i
n
, CE.
,
D
i
e
t
z, EJ., “A longitudinal stud
y
of en
gineer
ing studen
t
performance an
d retention
III:
Gender diff
eren
ces in stud
ent
p
e
rform
ance and
attitudes”,
Journ
a
l of
Engineerin
g
Education
,
vol/is
sue: 84(2),p
p. 15
1-163, 1995
.
[16]
Hawks, BK., Spade, JZ., “Women and men eng
i
neering
stud
ents
: Antic
ipat
ion of
fam
i
l
y
and wor
k
roles”,
Journal
of Eng
i
neering
Education
,
vo
l/issue: 87(3),pp
.
2
49-256, 1998
.
[17]
Cech,
E.
, Rubi
neau, B
.
,
S
ilbe
y
,
S
., S
e
ron
,
C., “
P
ro
fessional role conf
idence and
gender
e
d persisten
ce
in
engineering”,
Am
erican So
ciolog
ical
Review
,
vol/issue: 76(5),pp
.
6
41-666, 2001
.
[18]
Fouad, NA., Singh, R.,
“
S
t
em
m
i
ng the
tid
e: W
h
y wom
e
n leav
e e
ngineer
ing”,Un
i
versity
of Wi
sco
n
sin-Milwaukee:
Center for th
e Stud
y
of the Workplace, 2011.
Retrieved from http://www.
stud
y
o
fwork.com/wp-
conten
t/uplo
a
ds/2011/03/NSFreport2.
[19]
Kost, LE., Pollo
ck, SJ., Finkels
tein, ND., “The p
e
rsistence of the gender
gap
in introductor
y
ph
ysics”,Proceeding
s
of the 2008 Ph
y
s
ics Edu
cation R
e
search
Conf
eren
ce, vol.
1064
,pp. 139-142, 2008.
[20]
Kiefer,
A.,
S
h
ih,
M
., “
G
ender
dif
f
erenc
e
s
in p
e
rs
i
s
tence
and
attr
ib
ution in
s
t
ereo
t
ype re
levan
t
con
t
exts
”,
S
ex Rol
e
s
,
vol/issue:
54(11-
12),pp. 859-868, 2006.
[21]
H
a
ines
, V
A
.
, W
a
ll
ace
, J
E
.,
Cann
on, M
E
.
,
“Exp
lo
ring th
e gend
er
gap in
engin
eer
ing: A re-specif
i
cation
and
test of
the h
y
poth
e
sis of cumulativ
e
advantages and
disadvantages”,
Journal
of En
gineering Education,
vo
l/issue:
90(4),pp. 677-68
4, 2001
.
[22]
McLoughlin
, L., “Spotlighting
em
ergent gen
d
er bi
as in un
dergraduate eng
i
neer
ing educati
on”,
Journal o
f
Engineering Edu
c
ation
,
vol/issue: 94(4),pp
.
373-3
81, 2005
.
[23]
Beede, D., Julian, T.,
Langdon
, D.,
McKittrick, G., Khan
, B.,
Doms, M
., “Wo
men in STEM:
A gender gap to
innovation
”
, Bu
lletin No. 04-1
1
, Washington
, DC: US
Department of Com
m
erce
Economics and Statistics
Administration, 2011.
[24]
Felder, RM
., Br
ent, R
., “Unders
tanding stud
ent
differen
ces”,
Jo
urnal of Engin
e
ering Educa
tion
,
vol/issue: 94(1)
,
pp. 57-72
, 2005
.
[25]
Chubin, DE.,
May
,
GS., Bab
c
o, EL., “Diversif
y
ing
the
en
gineer
ing workforce”,
Journal of Engin
eerin
g
Education
,
vol/is
sue: 94(1),p
p. 73
-86, 2005
.
[26]
DeCohen, CC.,
Deterding
,
N., “Widening the net: Nation
a
l estimates of gender d
i
sparities in engineering
”
,
Journa
l
of Eng
i
neering
Education
,
vol/is
sue: 98(3),p
p. 21
1-226, 2009
.
[27]
Ferriman, K., Lubinski, D., Ben
bow, CP
., “
W
o
rk preferenc
e
s
,
li
fe values
, a
nd p
e
rsonal views of top math/science
graduates and
th
e profoundly
gif
t
ed: D
e
velopmental
chan
g
e
s an
d gender
diff
erences during
emerging adu
lthood
and par
e
nthood
”,
Journal
of
P
e
rsonality and So
ci
al Psychology,
v
o
l/issue: 9
7
(3),p
p
. 517-532
, 200
9.
[28]
Prenzel, M., “Conditions for
the persiste
n
ce of
interest”, Pap
e
r
presented
at
th
e annual meeting
of th
e American
Educational R
e
search
Associat
io
n, New Orleans,
LA, 1988
.
[29]
P
r
enzel
, M
., “
T
h
e
s
e
lec
tive p
e
rs
i
s
tence of int
e
res
t
”, In Re
minger
,
K.A., Hidi, S., and Kra
pp, A. e
d
itors,“
Inter
e
st i
n
learn
i
ng and
dev
e
lopment”
, Hills
dale, NJ,
Lawrence
Erlb
aum Associates, 1992
.
[30]
Fennema,
E., Leder, G
.
, “Mathe
matics and
gend
er”, New York,
Teachers Co
lleg
e
Press, 1990
.
[31]
N
o
ack, A
., A
n
t
i
m
i
rova,
T.
, M
i
lner-Bol
otin, M., “Student d
i
versity
and
th
e p
e
rsistence of g
e
nder eff
e
cts on
concep
tual
ph
ys
i
c
s
le
arning
”,
Ca
nadian Journal
of Ph
ysics,
vol/is
sue:87(12),pp
.
1
269-1274, 2009
.
[32]
Ferreira, MM., “Trends in
wom
e
n’s
repres
ent
a
tio
n in s
c
i
e
nc
e and
engin
eering
”
,
Journal of Women and Minorities
in Science and
Engineering
,
vol/issue: 15(3),pp
.
1
91-203, 2009
.
[33]
M
a
s
t
ekaas
a
,
A.
,
S
m
e
by, J
.
, “
E
d
u
cat
iona
l choice and persistence in male
and f
e
male dominated
fields”,
High
er
Education
, vo
l/issue: 55(6),pp
.
1
89-202, 2008
.
[34]
Correl,
SJ., “
C
onstraints in
to pre
f
erenc
e
s: Ge
nd
er, status, and
emerging
career
aspirations
”,
American Sociologica
l
Rev
i
ew,
vo
l. 69,p
p
. 93-113
, 2004
.
[35]
Chicker
i
ng, AW., “Education
an
d iden
tity
”
, San
Francisco,Jossey-Bass, 1969.
[36]
Sanford, N., “Where
college stud
ents
fail: A stud
y
of th
e stud
ent
as a p
e
rson”, San Francisco
,
Jossey
-
B
a
ss, 1967
.
[37]
Lewin, K., “A d
y
nam
i
c
th
eor
y
o
f
pers
onal
i
t
y
”, New York, McGr
aw-Hill, 1935
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Th
e
Reten
tion
o
f
Wo
m
e
n
i
n
Scien
ce, Technolo
g
y
, En
g
i
n
eerin
g
,
and
Ma
th
em
a
tics
.... (Jeffry L.
Wh
ite)
7
[38]
Kolb, DA., “Experien
tial learning: Expe
rience as the source of learning a
nd d
e
v
e
lopment”, E
nglewood Cliffs, NJ,
Prentice Hall, 19
84.
[39]
Tinto
,
V., “
D
ropout from
higher educa
tion: A
theoret
i
ca
l s
y
n
t
hesis of recen
t
research
”,
Review of Educatio
n
Research,
vol. 4
5
,pp. 89-125, 19
75.
[40]
Tinto
,
V., “Leav
i
ng college: R
e
thinking the
caus
e
s and cures
of student attrition”, Chica
go, Univ
ersity
of Chicago
Press, 1993.
[41]
Astin, AW., “Preventing studen
t
s from droppi
ng
out”, San Fran
cisco,Jossey
-
Bass, 1975.
[42]
Astin, AW
.,
“
W
hat m
a
t
t
ers
in
co
lleg
e
: Four
cri
tic
al
y
e
a
r
s re
visite
d”
,
Sa
n Fr
a
n
cisc
o,
Jossey
-
Ba
ss, 1993.
[43]
Bronfenbrenner
,
U., “The Amer
ican
fa
mi
ly
: Curre
nt
pe
rspe
ct
i
v
e
s
”
,
Ca
mbri
dge
, MA,
Ha
rva
r
d
Uni
v
e
r
si
ty
Pre
s
s,
1979.
[44]
Jones, W
A
., Braxton, JM., “
C
ataloging and co
m
p
aring ins
tituti
onal efforts to increase studen
t
reten
tion rat
e
s
”
,
Journal of College Stud
ent Reten
tion:Research, Theory and
Practice,
vol/issue: 11(
1),pp. 123-139,
2009.
[45]
Stith, PL.,Russel, F., “Facult
y
/
s
t
udent int
e
ractio
n: Im
p
act on student ret
e
ntion
”
, Paper present
e
d at the annual
conferen
ce of
th
e Associat
ion fo
r Institu
tional R
e
search, New Orl
eans,
LA., 1994
.
[46]
W
h
ite, JL
. “
I
nter
est and
inter
a
c
t
i
on as cri
tic
al f
a
ctors in th
e retention of
m
i
noriti
es in STEM”,
Contemporary Issues
in Edu
c
ation
R
e
search,
vol/issue: 4(1),pp
.
1-
23, 2
010.
[47]
White, JL., Alts
chuld, JW.,
Lee, YF., “C
ultur
a
l
dimensions in science, technol
og
y
,
eng
i
neering, and mathematics:
Implications for minorit
y
r
e
ten
t
ion res
ear
ch”
,
Journal of Educational Re
search and Policy Studies,
vol/issue:
6(2),pp. 41-59, 2
006.
[48]
Center on
Education
and Work, “Increas
ing STEM reten
tion fo
r underrepr
esente
d students: Factor
s that matter”,
Madison, WI, University
of Wi
s
c
onsin Research
Brief, 2008.
[49]
Kokkelenberg
,
E.,Sinh
a
, E
., “
W
ho succeeds in STEM st
udies
?
An anal
ysis of Bingham
t
on Universit
y
undergraduate students”,
Econo
mics of
Educa
tio
n Review
,
vo
l/iss
u
e: 29(6)
,pp. 93
5-946, 2010
.
[50]
Nicholls, GM.,
Wolfe, H., B
a
sterfiel
d-Sacr
e,
M., Shuman, LJ
.,Larpk
iattawor
n
, S.,“A method for identif
y
i
n
g
variab
les for
pre
d
icting
STEM
e
n
rollm
ent”
,
Journal of Engin
eering Educa
tion,
v
o
l/issue: 9
6
(1),p
p
. 33-44
, 2007
.
[51]
K
uh G
D
., Lov
e
, P
G
., “
A
cu
ltu
ral p
e
rs
p
ective
on student d
e
parture”,
In Br
ax
ton, J.M. ed
itor,“Reworking the
student d
e
partu
r
e puzzl
e”, Nashv
ille,
TN, V
a
nder
b
ilt Univ
ersit
y
P
r
ess, 2000.
[52]
Gunter, R., “Th
e
emergence of
gendered participation st
y
l
es in science-r
e
lated discussions: I
m
plications for
wom
e
n’s
place i
n
s
c
ience
”
,
Journal of Women and Minorities in
Science and En
gineering
,
vol/issue: 15(1),pp
.
53-
75, 2009
.
[53]
Ehrenberg
, RG., “Analy
zing the
factors that influ
e
nce pers
istence rates in STEM
field
,
majors: Introduction to th
e
s
y
mposium”,
Economics
of Education Review
,
vo
l/issue: 29
(5),pp
. 881-891, 2010.
[54]
Griffith, AL., “Persistence of wo
m
e
n and m
i
norities in STEM field m
a
jors:
Is it t
h
e school that m
a
tters
?
”
, Paper
presented
at th
e
Sloan Working
Conference, Ith
a
ca, NY, 2010
.
[55]
Lord, S
M
.,
Ca
m
acho, M
M
.,
L
a
yton,
RA
.,
Lo
ng, RA
.,
Ohlan
d
, MW., Wash
burn, MH., “Who’s persisting
in
engine
ering
?
A
com
p
arativ
e ana
l
y
s
is
of fem
a
l
e
and m
a
le As
ian,
Black, His
p
an
i
c
, Nat
i
ve Am
eri
can,
and W
h
ite
students”,
Journ
a
l of Women and
Minorities
in
Science and
Engin
eering,
vol/issue: 15(2),pp
.
167
-1
90, 2009
.
[56]
Sey
m
our, E., H
e
witt, NM., “T
alking
about leaving: Wh
y
un
dergraduate
s leave the scien
ces
”, Bould
e
r, CO
,
Westview Press, 1997.
[57]
Maltese, AV., “Persistence in STEM: An
investigation of the relationship
betw
een high school experien
ces in
s
c
ienc
e and m
a
t
h
em
atics
and
co
lleg
e
degr
ee
co
m
p
letion in S
T
EM
fields
”
,
Doctoral dissertation
,
2008. R
e
trieved
from ProQuest Digital Di
ssertation database (P
u
b
lication
No. A
A
I3326999).
[58]
McClure, P., Ro
driguez, A., “Factors re
lated to
advanced
course-
t
aking p
a
tter
ns, persistence
in
science technolo
g
y
engineering
and
m
a
them
atics, an
d the rol
e
of out
-of-sc
hool tim
e
program
s: A literature r
e
vi
ew”,
Greensboro, NC
,
The Co
alition
fo
r Scien
c
e after S
c
hool, 2007.
[59]
Ost, B., “The ro
le of
peers and
grades in
de
t
e
rm
ining m
a
jor
pers
istenc
e in
the
sci
e
nces”
,
Economics of
Education
Rev
i
ew,
vol/issue: 29(5)
,pp. 923-
934, 2010
.
[60]
Beal, P., Noel,
L., “What works in student r
e
tenti
on”, (ERIC
Document Repr
oduction Serv
ice No. ED19763
5),
Iowa Cit
y
, IA,
Am
erican Coll
ege Tes
t
ing P
r
ogram
a
nd Natio
nal Center for Highe
r Education Management
S
y
stems, 1980.
[61]
Buckley
,
S.,Ing
run, L., “The
new transfer student
network: Reten
tion and
quality
throug
h student-facu
lty
inter
action”, Plattsburgh,
NY, R
e
search Foundation
of SUNY Plattsburgh, 1991
.
[62]
Henr
y
,
C., Piatt, J., Ullom, S., Rupp, S., “Increas
ing retentio
n on a college campus through at-risk studen
t
identif
ic
ation
a
nd facu
lt
y-s
t
ud
ent
conta
c
t
”
, P
a
per pr
es
ent
e
d
at
the
annu
al
confer
enc
e
of
the
S
outheas
t
e
rn
Psy
c
hological A
ssociation
.
New
Orleans, LA, 19
88.
[63]
Burgette, JE.,M
agun-Jackson, S
., “Fresh
men orientation, persiste
nce, and
achievement: A
long
itudinal an
aly
s
is”,
Journal of College Stud
ent Reten
ti
on: Research
, Theory
and
Pra
c
tice,
vol/issue: 1
0
(3),pp. 235-263
, 2008
.
[64]
F
r
ench, BF
.
,
Im
m
e
kus
, J
., O
a
k
e
s
,
W
., “
A
n e
x
am
ination
of
indicators of en
gineer
ing students’ success an
d
persistenc
e”
,
Jo
urnal of
Engineering Educa
tion,
vol/issue:
94(4),pp. 419-425
, 20
05.
[65]
Kiser, AI., Price,
L., “The p
e
rs
istence of
coll
ege students fro
m their fr
eshman to sophomore
y
ear
”,
Journal of
College Stud
ent
Retention:
Re
search, Theory an
d Practice,
vo
l/issue: 9(4),pp
.
42
1-436, 2007
.
[66]
McLendon, MK., Tu
chmay
e
r, JB., Park
, TJ
., “S
tate policy
climates
for college stu
d
ent succe
ss: An analy
s
is of
state
policy
do
cumen
t
s pertaining
to
co
ll
ege
persist
e
nce
and
com
p
letion
”
,
Journal of Colleg
e Stu
d
ent
Retention
:
Research, Theor
y
and
Practice,
vol/issue:
11(1),pp. 33-56
, 2009
.
[67]
Morris, LV.,Fin
negan,
CL.
,
“
B
e
s
t pract
ic
es in p
r
edic
ti
ng and
en
couraging stud
ent persisten
ce
and achievement
online
”
,
Journal
of College Stud
ent Reten
ti
on:
Research, Theory a
nd Practice,
vo
l/issue: 10(1),pp
.
55-64, 2008
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:2252
-88
22
IJER
E
V
o
l
.
5,
No
. 1,
M
a
rc
h 20
1
6
:
1 – 8
8
[68]
Panos, S.,Bladen-Hovell, R.,
“
P
ersistence in t
h
e determ
ina
tio
n of work-relate
d training part
ic
ipation
:
Eviden
c
e
from the BHPS,
1991-1997”,
Economics
of Education Review
,
vo
l/issue: 29
(6),pp
. 1005-1015, 201
0.
[69]
Park, CL.
,
Bom
a
n, J., Dean Care, W
., Edw
a
rds, M.,
Perr
y, B.,“
Persistenc
e and attr
ition
:
W
h
at is being
m
eas
ured
?
”
,
Jour
nal of Colleg
e S
t
udent
Retenti
o
n
:
Research
, Theory and Practice,
vol/issue: 10(
2),pp. 223-233
,
2008.
[70]
Sutton, S., Nora, A., “An explo
r
ation of
colleg
e persiste
n
c
e fo
r students enro
lled in web-
enhanced courses: A
m
u
ltivari
a
te an
a
l
ytic app
r
oach
”,
Journal of College Student Retenti
on: Research
, Theory and Practice,
vol/issue:
10(1),pp. 21-37,
2008.
[71]
Webber, DA.,
Ehrenberg
, RG., “Do expe
nditu
res other th
an instruction
a
l exp
e
nditur
e
s affect graduation and
persistenc
e rates
in Am
er
ican higher education
?”,
Economics of Education Review,
vol/issue: 2
9
(6),pp. 947-95
8,
2010.
[72]
Ziskin, M.
, Hossler, D., Kim
,
S
., “
T
he stud
y of
ins
titution
a
l pr
a
c
ti
ces rel
a
ted
to
student persiste
nce”
,
Journal of
College Stud
ent
Retention:
Re
sea
r
ch, Theory and
Practice,
vol/issue: 11(1)
,pp. 10
1-121, 2009
.
[73]
W
h
ite, JL
.,
Altsc
huld, JW
.,
L
e
e
,
YF., “
P
ersistenc
e
of
int
e
rest
in s
c
ien
c
e
,
t
echno
lo
g
y
, eng
i
ne
ering,
and m
a
them
a
tics
:
A minority
reten
tion stud
y
”
,
Journal of Women and Minorities in
Science and En
gineering
,
vol/issue: 12(1),pp
.
47-
64, 2006
.
[74]
P
r
ice, J
.
, “
T
he ef
fect of ins
t
ru
ctor
race and g
e
nder
on s
t
udent pers
i
s
tence in S
T
EM
fields
”
,
Econom
ics of Educatio
n
Rev
i
ew,
vol/issue: 29(5)
,pp. 901-
910, 2010
.
[75]
STEM Research
and Modeling
Network,
“
P
roceedings from
th
e inaugur
al m
e
e
ting of th
e STE
M
Research
and
Modeling Network (SRMN)”, Kansas City
, MO
,
Ewing Marion
K
a
u
ffman Foundation, 2008.
[76]
Sullins, AC., “F
actors relat
e
d to
student persist
e
nce in
a new r
e
sidential STEM
high school:
T
h
e case o
f
the
Tennessee
gove
rnor’s acad
em
y
for m
a
them
at
ic
s and scien
c
e
”
,
Unpublished do
ctoral dissertation,
Uni
v
e
r
sity
of
Tennessee. Kno
xville,
TN, 2010
.
[77]
W
h
ite, J
L
.,Al
t
s
c
huld, J
W
.,
“
R
DE-RAD: Coll
abo
r
ativ
e res
earch
:
Increas
ing
a
c
hie
v
em
ent and
tr
an
s
ition out
com
e
i
n
STEM professions of post-secondar
y
students with di
sabilities”, Annual
report
(
H
RD-0833561), Washington, DC,
National Science Foundation
,
200
9.
BIOGRAP
HI
ES OF
AUTH
ORS
Jeffry
L
.
White, Ph.D.
is th
e Jo
an D.
& Alex
an
der S. Ha
ig/BO
R
SF Professor of Educ
ation
IV
ath the Univ
ers
i
t
y
of Lou
i
s
i
ana
,
Lafa
ye
tt
e. He is
co-author of
N
e
eds Assessment:
Analysis and
Priortization
(Sage, 2009) and
his research interest
ar
e in
quantitativ
e methods and the
formative and summative evaluation
of
progr
ams designed to improve th
e retention
of
underrepresen
ted groups in
scie
n
ce, technolog
y
,
engineer
i
ng,
and
mathematics (STEM)
G.H
.
Mas
s
i
h
a
, Ph
.D
.
is the Louisiana Board
of Regents Professor of Engineering in the
Department of
I
ndustrial
Techn
o
log
y
at th
e Un
iv
ersity
o
f
Lou
i
siana, Lafay
e
tte. His areas of
res
earch
in
teres
t
are
in robo
tics
,
a
ltern
ativ
e
energ
y
, and
au
tom
a
tion
m
a
nufactu
r
ing.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.