Int
ern
at
i
onal
Journ
al of E
valua
tio
n
an
d
Rese
arch
in
Educati
on (I
JE
RE)
Vo
l.
8
, No
.
3
,
Septem
ber
201
9
, p
p.
5
19
~
5
30
IS
S
N: 22
52
-
8822
,
DOI: 10
.11
591/
ije
re
.
v8
i
3
.
20247
519
Journ
al h
om
e
page
:
http:
//
ia
es
core
.c
om/
journa
ls
/i
ndex.
ph
p/IJE
R
E
Cross
-
cu
ltural L
2 le
ar
nin
g exch
ange:
A
qu
ali
tative e
xa
min
ation
of
s
trat
egies, t
ool
s, cogniti
on and transl
atio
n outco
mes
Robert
W. E
ll
iott
1
,
X
i
aole
i Chen
2
1
Foreign
L
anguage
School
,
Li
n
y
i
Univer
sit
y
,
Ch
i
na
2
Li
n
y
i
W
rit
er’
s
As
socia
ti
on,
Chi
na
Art
ic
le
In
f
o
ABSTR
A
CT
Art
ic
le
history:
Re
cei
ved
J
ul
1
1
, 2
01
9
Re
vised
A
ug
1
5
, 2
01
9
Accepte
d
Aug
29
, 201
9
Am
idst
the
m
il
ie
u
of
fre
e
and
at
-
cost
L2
la
ng
uage
software
a
ppli
c
at
ions
coming
int
o
exis
te
nce
for
use
on
m
obil
e
devi
ces
and
computer
s,
adul
t
L
2
le
arn
ers
are
face
d
with
the
cha
lle
nge
of
sele
cting
the
ir
best
cho
ic
e for
the
m
to
use
in
ac
qu
iri
ng
a
spec
if
ic
se
con
d
la
nguag
e.
The
i
r
sele
c
ti
on
is
bas
ed
on
their
indi
vidual
n
ee
d
and
the
conte
xt
in
w
hic
h
th
e
y
pl
an
to
use
the
sec
ond
la
nguag
e.
More
important
l
y
,
i
t
is
well
known
the
re
is
no
single
tool,
resourc
e
,
or
str
a
te
g
y
th
at
adult
L
2
learne
rs
c
an
u
se
to
ful
l
y
ac
qui
re
a
sec
on
d
la
nguag
e
quic
k
l
y
and
eff
e
ct
iv
ely
,
espe
c
ia
l
l
y
fo
r
int
er
cul
tur
al
c
ouple
s
who
la
ck
a
comm
on
la
ngu
age
for
d
ai
l
y
comm
unic
a
ti
on
.
W
hil
e
the
r
e
is
m
uch
li
te
r
at
ur
e
on
the
topi
c
of
L2
a
c
quisit
ion
and
l
e
arn
ing,
the
purp
ose
of
thi
s
aut
o
-
e
thnogra
ph
ic
stud
y
is
to
share
with
re
ad
ers
spec
ific
asp
ec
ts
of
our
journey
in
ac
qui
ring
each
othe
r
’
s
nat
i
ve
l
angua
g
e
throughout
t
he
ir
first
y
e
ar
toge
th
er.
In
cl
u
ded
are
subs
e
quent
findi
ngs
invol
ving
co
gnit
ion
an
d
tra
nsla
ti
on
issue
s
as
deve
lop
ing
skill
s
rec
ogn
ize
d
during
var
iou
s
phase
s
of
L2
a
cqui
sit
ion
.
Ke
yw
or
d
s
:
Adult L
2
a
c
qu
i
sit
ion
Cognit
ion
Lan
gu
a
ge
a
ppli
cat
ion
s
Transl
at
ion
Copyright
©
201
9
Instit
ut
e
o
f Ad
vanc
ed
Engi
n
ee
r
ing
and
S
cienc
e
.
Al
l
rights re
serv
ed
.
Corres
pond
in
g
Aut
h
or
:
Rob
e
rt
W.
Ell
iott
Fo
r
ei
gn La
ngua
ge
Sc
hool,
Linyi
Univer
sit
y,
Mi
dd
le
S
huan
gl
ing
R
oad, Li
ny
i, Sh
a
ndong,
China
2760
05
Em
a
il
: rb
rt_llt
t@y
ah
oo.co
m
1.
INTROD
U
CTION
In
the
c
onte
xt
of
this
st
ud
y,
interc
ultur
al
rel
at
ion
s
hip
s
bri
ng
a
bout
a
uniq
ue
set
of
c
halle
ng
e
s
a
nd
su
ccesse
s
es
pe
ci
al
ly
fo
r
a
m
a
rr
ie
d
c
ouple
th
at
po
sses
ses
ve
ry
lim
i
te
d
seco
nd
la
ngua
ge
c
omm
un
ic
at
ion
sk
il
ls
in
the
ta
rg
et
la
ngua
ges.
Wh
at
we
belie
ve
is
qu
it
e
c
omm
on
for
inte
rr
aci
al
m
arr
ie
d
c
ouple
s
w
ho
do
not
s
peak
each
ot
her’s
la
ngua
ge
ve
ry
w
el
l
is
their
inna
te
desire
to
he
lp
each
oth
e
r
i
m
pr
ove
their
sk
il
ls
and
a
bili
ti
es
in
each
oth
e
r’
s
na
ti
ve
la
ngua
ge
,
wh
il
e
they
wa
nt
earn
est
ly
to
de
velo
p
thei
r
in
div
id
ual
la
ng
ua
ge
s
kill
s
in
ou
r
ne
w
seco
nd
la
ngua
ge.
T
he
pu
rpos
e
of
this
sel
f
-
a
uto
et
hn
ogra
phy
is
to
sh
are
m
uch
i
ns
ig
ht
int
o
the
c
halle
nges
an
d
strat
egies
that
“we,”
re
fer
re
d
to
in
t
hir
d
-
per
s
on
her
ea
fter,
us
e
d
to
ac
qu
i
re
a
n
d
le
ar
n
eac
h
oth
e
r’
s
native
la
nguag
e
th
rou
gh our o
w
n
pe
r
sp
ect
ives a
fter
hav
i
ng r
e
viewe
d
a
nd
m
ade str
ong
c
onnecti
on
s w
it
h
t
he
la
ng
uage
acqu
isi
ti
on
the
or
ie
s
a
nd
best
pr
act
ic
es
f
ound
th
r
oughout
the
li
te
ratur
e
that
are
pr
e
se
nted
in
the
li
te
ratur
e
rev
ie
w
.
I
n
do
ing
so,
this
stu
dy
will
rev
eal
th
e
chall
en
ges
fa
ced,
t
he
strat
eg
ie
s
and
t
oo
ls
f
ound
use
f
ul,
a
nd
t
he
un
i
nten
ded
s
ki
ll
s
that
wer
e
de
velo
ped
al
ong
t
he
way
offer
i
ng
m
uch
insig
ht
to
li
nguisti
c
resea
r
cher
s
,
pr
act
it
ion
e
rs, a
du
lt
L
2
le
a
rn
e
r
s,
a
nd softwa
re
d
e
velo
pe
rs
.
Hav
i
ng
le
ar
ne
d
a
ver
y
basic
le
vel
of
En
glish
read
i
ng,
wr
it
ing
,
a
nd
li
ste
nin
g
on
ly
(no
in
structio
n
in
or
al
E
ngli
sh
)
dur
i
ng
Xia
olei’s
thr
ee m
idd
le
s
chool yea
rs
(1
991
-
19
94),
rec
ei
vin
g al
m
os
t no Engli
sh i
ns
t
ru
ct
io
n
durin
g
he
r
voc
at
ion
al
high
sc
hool
ye
ars
(
19
95
-
1998),
a
nd
hav
i
ng
not
appl
ie
d
the
En
glish
sh
e
le
ar
ne
d
in
th
e
alm
os
t
20
ye
a
rs
since
the
n,
i
m
pr
ovin
g
he
r
Eng
li
s
h
seem
ed
a
m
ajo
r
ch
al
le
ng
e
f
or
he
r
after
th
ey
m
et
in
Decem
ber
2016.
C
onversel
y,
Rob
e
rt
ha
d
ac
quire
d
only
a
ve
ry
basic
le
vel
of
t
he
Chi
nese
la
nguag
e
in
th
e
tw
o
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
3
,
Sept
e
m
ber
2019
:
5
1
9
-
5
3
0
520
pr
ece
ding
ye
ar
s
be
ginnin
g
in
the
su
m
m
er
of
2014
th
r
ough
sel
f
-
stu
dy
us
in
g
in
form
al
on
li
ne
a
nd
li
m
it
ed
face
-
to
-
face
re
sourc
es.
Hav
i
ng
acq
uire
d
a
basic
l
evel
of
six
othe
r
f
orei
gn
la
ng
uag
e
s
beg
i
nn
i
ng
from
wh
e
n
he
wa
s
10
ye
ars
old
a
nd
hav
i
ng
l
ive
d
an
d
w
orked
in
m
or
e
than
20
co
un
t
ries
thr
oughout
his
li
fe,
Rob
e
rt
had
m
uch
knowle
dge
an
d
ex
pe
rience
with
le
ar
ning
and
us
i
ng
fore
ign
la
ng
uages
to
ai
d
him
in
acqu
i
rin
g
an
d
le
arn
in
g
Chinese
.
How
ever,
he
f
ound
hi
m
sel
f
struggling
to
fin
d
the
le
ast
exp
e
nsi
ve
an
d
m
os
t
eff
ect
ive
re
sou
rce
for
acqu
i
rin
g
the
Chinese
la
ngua
ge,
re
viewi
ng
the
qu
a
gm
ire
of
onli
ne
sou
rces
an
d
m
aki
ng
us
e
of
those
he
thought
w
ould
produce
his
desire
d
res
ults
with
the
le
ast
a
m
ou
nt
of
ti
m
e
and
ef
fort
for
the
six
y
ears
he
plan
ned
to
rem
ai
n
i
n
China
.
R
ob
e
rt’s
goal
was
to
ac
quire
t
he
Chinese
la
ng
uag
e
f
or
li
ving
m
or
e
ind
e
pe
ndently
wh
il
e
li
vi
ng
an
d
wor
king
in
China,
so
ti
m
e
was
of
the
ess
ence
—
he
did
no
t
wa
nt
to
be
a
bur
de
n
on
ot
her
s
to
com
m
un
ic
at
e fo
r
h
im
.
Xiaolei
’s
goal
was
t
o
c
on
ti
nue
le
arn
i
ng
E
ngli
sh
to
al
low
he
r
to
le
ar
n
a
nd
ex
per
ie
nce
m
or
e
of
t
he
world
in
hopes
that
sh
e
m
igh
t
so
m
eday
travel
to
Eng
li
sh
-
spe
akin
g
co
un
t
ries.
Re
al
iz
ing
the
seve
re
lim
itati
on
s
of
the
C
hin
ese edu
cat
io
n
syst
e
m
with
reg
ar
d
to
En
glish
la
ngua
ge
inst
ru
ct
i
on,
sh
e felt
ver
y
handicap
ped
in
her
seco
nd
la
ng
ua
ge
abili
ty
with
bein
g
able
to
recall
on
ly
thr
ee
sh
ort
phrase
s
at
the
tim
e
they
m
et
each
oth
er
in
Decem
ber
2016
“Hell
o,
”
“I
’
m
fine,
”
an
d
“
Tha
nk
y
ou.”
F
or
t
he
fir
st
thr
ee
m
on
ths
of
their
r
el
at
ion
s
hip
,
th
e
y
reli
ed
heav
il
y
on
the
m
ob
il
e
WeChat
s
ocial
m
edia
app
li
cat
ion
a
nd
f
ree
t
ran
sla
ti
on
a
ppli
cat
ion
s
(e
.
g.
,
Ba
idu
and iTra
ns
la
te
)
to get t
hem
throug
h
thei
r dail
y com
m
un
ic
at
i
on w
it
h ea
ch
o
t
her.
Althou
gh
neith
er
of
them
felt
the
need
to
ac
qu
i
re
an
d
us
e
each
oth
e
r’s
na
ti
ve
la
nguag
e
,
bo
th
s
har
e
the
stron
g
de
sire
to
co
ntin
ue
le
arn
i
ng
t
he
ot
her’s
na
ti
ve
la
nguag
e
for
the
sake
of
im
pr
ov
i
ng
thei
r
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
wit
h
each
ot
her
a
nd
f
or
li
felo
ng
le
a
rn
i
ng.
E
ngli
sh
is
Xiaolei
’s
first
foreig
n
la
ng
ua
ge
a
nd
Chinese
is
Ro
ber
t’
s
se
ven
t
h.
His
si
x
oth
e
r
f
or
ei
gn
la
ngua
ges
i
nclu
de:
Fr
e
nch,
Ger
m
an,
G
reek,
S
pa
nish,
Ar
a
bic,
a
nd
Th
ai
.
Both
s
har
e
a
passion
for
s
econd
-
la
ngua
ge
acqu
isi
ti
on
a
nd
le
a
rn
i
ng,
an
d
they
bo
t
h
co
ntinue
to m
ake g
reat
s
trides in
their
e
ffor
t
s.
Thro
ugh
t
heir
own
disco
ve
ry
over
ti
m
e,
they
reali
zed
the
r
e
was
no
sin
gl
e
software
ap
pl
ic
at
ion
that
was
sat
isf
act
ory
for
t
hem
to
com
m
un
ic
at
e
with
each
ot
her
without
ca
us
in
g
m
uch
a
nxie
ty
and
stres
s.
F
or
thi
s
reason,
they
both
ag
reed
to
join
f
or
ces
wit
h
e
ac
h
oth
e
r
t
o
le
ar
n
m
or
e
a
bout
t
he
c
omm
un
ic
at
ion
iss
ues
t
hey
faced
a
nd
ho
w
to
ov
erc
om
e
t
hem
.
Hav
ing
worked
th
rou
gh
these
m
any
i
ssu
es
as
a
resul
t
of
their
newfou
nd
knowle
dge
f
r
om
the
countle
ss
hours
s
pe
nt
researc
hing
t
his
interc
ultura
l
ph
e
nom
eno
n,
t
hey
prese
nt
thei
r
fin
dings
in
thi
s
arti
cl
e
to
help
oth
e
r
interc
ultur
al
co
uple
s
in
their
quest
to
underst
an
d
and
fi
nd
t
he
best
strat
egies
a
nd
too
ls
th
at
fit
th
ei
r
sit
uation
w
hile
offe
rin
g
li
nguists,
sc
hola
rs,
a
nd
re
searc
her
s
m
uch
insi
gh
t
t
o
gu
i
de
thei
r pr
a
ct
ic
e and
resea
rch ab
out t
his
m
uch
m
isun
de
rstood area
of l
angua
ge
ac
qu
is
it
ion
and lea
rn
i
ng.
In
t
hinkin
g
ab
ou
t
th
ei
r
pa
st
exp
e
rience
s
with
la
ng
uag
e
acqu
isi
ti
on
a
nd
le
a
rn
i
ng,
they
be
ga
n
t
o
reali
ze
their
sit
uation
is
not
uniq
ue
to
them
as
a
ren
e
we
d
f
ocus
on
sec
ond
la
n
gu
a
ge
ac
qu
isi
ti
on
is
rel
at
ively
new
t
o
ed
uca
ti
on
syst
em
s.
More
ov
e
r,
E
ng
li
s
h
as
a
Seco
nd
Lan
gu
age
(E
SL)
le
arn
i
ng
becam
e
fu
ll
y
i
m
ple
m
ented
in
r
ur
al
sc
hools
in
China
only
within
t
he
pas
t
30
ye
ars
an
d
is
now
c
om
pu
lsory
in
G
rad
e
Thr
e
e
in
al
l
public
sc
hools.
In
ad
diti
on,
se
ver
al
stu
dies
that
we
re
cond
ucted
s
he
d
m
uch
li
gh
t
i
nto
s
pecific
sit
uations
as
interc
ultur
al
m
arr
ie
d
co
up
l
es
looki
ng
f
or
best
s
olu
ti
ons
t
o
sta
ve
off
pot
entia
l
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
pr
ob
le
m
s
that
m
any
couples
face
in
t
heir
in
it
ia
l
ye
ars
of
m
arr
ia
ge
,
a
nd
t
her
e
a
re
nu
m
ero
us
sou
rces
th
at
sp
eak
m
os
tly
about
the
pro
blem
s
t
hat
interracia
l
and
i
nterc
ultura
l
couples
enc
ounter
with
in
form
ation
that
was
not
nece
ssaril
y
su
pp
or
te
d
well
with
e
m
pirical
find
i
ng
s
that
a
re
ver
y
ge
ne
rali
zable
to
oth
er
coup
le
s
or
popula
ti
on
s
[
1
-
4].
And
thu
s
,
resea
rc
he
rs
sta
te
m
uch
m
or
e
researc
h
is
needed
i
n
t
his
area
as
we
are
on
ly
at
th
e
be
ginnin
g
of
fu
ll
y
unde
rstan
ding
the
m
any
nu
an
ces
involve
d
in
la
ngua
ge
ac
qu
isi
ti
on
an
d
use
in
this
pr
a
gm
at
ic
area,
and
their
aff
ect
s
of an
d on
interc
ultu
ra
l rela
ti
on
s
hi
ps
.
Howe
ver,
those
stud
ie
s
th
at
wer
e
well
-
f
ram
ed
and
cond
ucted
pr
ov
i
de
m
uch
insig
ht
and
unde
rstan
ding
of
t
he
real
iss
ues
face
d
by
interc
ultur
al
c
ouples
wish
i
ng
to
est
ablish
a
com
m
on
la
ngua
ge
of
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
[
5
-
8
]
.
T
his
stud
y
al
s
o
pr
e
sents
t
he
var
i
ous
te
rm
s
an
d
t
heories
t
hat
unde
r
pin
t
his
st
ud
y
t
o
pro
vid
e
a
m
ore
holi
sti
c
view
of
the
iss
ues
f
aced,
t
he
rea
sons
for
sel
ect
in
g
a
nd
us
i
ng
th
e
strat
egies
a
nd
to
ols
that
pro
ved
m
os
t
eff
ect
ive,
an
d
the
add
it
io
nal
sk
i
ll
s
that
resu
l
te
d
from
their
seco
nd
l
angua
ge
acqu
isi
ti
on
(S
L
A)
.
In
c
reasin
g
t
he
awar
e
ness
an
d
underst
an
ding
of
t
he
iss
ue
s
interr
aci
al
couples
face
in
their
daily
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
an
d
the
t
oo
ls
and
strat
egies
they
us
e
to
ac
qu
i
re
an
d
us
e
their
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge
sta
nd
t
o
hel
p
edu
cat
or
s
a
nd
researc
her
s
ide
ntify
sp
eci
fic
aspects
of
sec
on
d
la
ngua
ge
le
arn
i
ng
an
d
acq
ui
sit
ion
in
an
ap
plied
con
te
xt.
From
this,
e
du
cat
or
s
an
d
rese
arc
hers
can
f
oc
us
t
he
ir
at
te
ntion on asp
ect
s o
f
ESL
an
d
SLA
that m
at
te
r
the
m
os
t
in
sol
vin
g
pro
blem
s
in
a
re
al
-
li
fe
co
ntext
usi
ng
th
e
ad
va
ntage
s
that
m
ixed
-
m
et
ho
ds
stu
dies
offe
r.
Wh
il
e
stu
dies
su
c
h
as
this
on
e
do
no
t
pr
ov
i
de
m
uch
gen
e
r
al
iz
eabli
li
t
y
to
the
la
rg
e
r
popu
la
ti
on
of
i
nterc
ultur
al
couples,
they
do
pro
vid
e
a
de
gree
of
insig
ht
a
nd
directi
on
t
o
go
with
E
S
L
an
d
SLA
researc
h
and p
racti
ce.
As
a
prel
im
inary
ste
p
t
o
a
ny
s
tud
y,
it
is
nece
ssary
to
de
fine
the
s
pecific
te
r
m
s
below
that
wer
e
f
ound
in
the
li
te
ratu
r
e.
As
resea
rc
he
rs
m
ention,
t
her
e
are
seve
r
al
intercult
ural
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
c
on
te
xts
that
ap
ply
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Cross
-
c
ultur
al
L2
le
arnin
g
ex
chan
ge: a
qu
alit
ative
exam
i
nati
on
of strate
gi
es, to
ols,
c
og
…
(
Rob
e
rt W.
Ell
iott
)
521
rangin
g
f
ro
m
fr
ie
nds
hip
s,
bu
si
ness
relat
i
on
s
,
m
arr
ia
ges,
rangin
g
in
so
ci
al
and
e
conom
ic
top
ic
s
from
sh
op
ping,
eat
in
g,
tra
vel
and
tr
ans
portat
ion
,
ti
m
e,
m
on
ey
,
and
sit
uations
tha
t
inv
olv
e
feeli
ngs
an
d
em
otion
s.
It
is
in
these
co
nt
exts
that
diff
ic
ulti
es
in
com
m
un
ic
at
io
n
m
ay
arise
[
9
,
10
]
.
H
ere
are
just
a
f
ew
of
t
he
key
te
rm
s
that re
qu
ir
e a
ba
sic
und
e
rstan
ding in
the
co
nt
ext of this
stu
dy:
Cognit
ive
Stra
te
gies
-
le
ar
ning
strat
egies
that
require
the
le
arn
e
r
to
directl
y
m
anipu
la
te
the
le
ar
ning
m
at
erial
throu
gh
“re
petit
ion,
resour
ci
ng,
t
ran
sla
ti
o
n,
gr
ouping,
no
te
ta
kin
g,
de
du
ct
ion
,
rec
om
bina
ti
on
,
i
m
ager
y, au
ditor
y
represe
ntati
on
,
k
ey
w
ord,
con
te
xtu
al
iz
at
ion, ela
bo
rati
on, tra
ns
fe
r,
a
nd i
nf
e
ren
ci
ng
”
[
11
]
Goo
d
La
ngua
ge
Lear
ner
-
a
la
ngua
ge
le
ar
ner
desc
ribe
d
in
te
rm
s
of
res
ear
cher
s
belie
fs
ba
sed
on
a
l
earn
er
’s
per
s
onal
cha
racteri
sti
cs,
sty
le
,
and
s
trat
egies.
T
he
li
st
pr
ovide
d
is no
t
al
l
-
incl
us
iv
e
bu
t
it
inclu
de
s
th
e
belie
f
that
good lear
ners
[
11
]
:
a.
Find thei
r
ow
n way, ta
ki
ng r
es
pons
i
bili
ty
f
or
their
own
le
ar
ni
ng
,
b.
Orga
nize inf
or
m
at
ion
abo
ut learni
ng,
c.
Ar
e
creati
ve
, a
nd try to
f
eel
t
he
la
ng
uag
e
b
y
experim
enting i
ts gr
am
m
ar an
d w
ords
,
d.
Creat
e oppo
rtu
niti
es f
or
pr
act
i
ce in
us
in
g
t
he l
anguag
e
insi
de
and
ou
tsi
de
t
he
cl
ass
room
,
e.
Learn
t
o
li
ve
with
unce
rtai
nt
y
by
no
t
gett
ing
c
onf
us
ed
and
by
co
ntin
uing
to
ta
lk
or
li
s
te
n
with
out
unde
rstan
ding
ever
y
w
ord,
f.
Use
m
e
m
or
y st
rategies t
o b
rin
g back
what
ha
s b
ee
n
le
ar
ne
d,
g.
Ma
ke
er
r
or
s
work
for
t
hem
, n
ot ag
ai
ns
t t
hem
,
h.
Use
li
ng
uisti
c k
no
wled
ge,
i
nc
lud
in
g k
nowle
dg
e
of t
he
fi
rst
la
nguag
e
, in l
e
arn
i
ng a sec
ond
la
ng
uag
e
,
i.
Use
c
onte
xtu
al
cl
ues
t
o help t
hem
in
com
pr
ehensi
on,
j.
Learn t
o
m
ake
intel
li
gen
t g
ues
ses,
k.
Learn
c
hunks
of
la
ng
ua
ge
as
wholes
a
nd
f
or
m
al
iz
ed
r
ou
ti
ne
s
to
help
them
per
f
or
m
’b
ey
ond
their c
om
petence’,
l.
Learn t
o use
ce
rtai
n
tric
ks
to
kee
p
c
onve
rsati
on
s
goi
ng,
m.
Learn cert
ai
n p
rod
u
ct
ion st
rat
egies to
f
il
l i
n gaps i
n t
heir o
wn co
m
petenc
e,
n.
Learn
dif
fer
e
nt
sty
le
s
of
sp
ee
ch
an
d
w
riti
ng
and
le
ar
n
to
va
ry
their
la
ngua
ge
re
gardin
g
the
f
or
m
al
ity
of
the sit
uatio
n.
In
te
rc
ultu
ral
Com
m
un
ic
at
ion
-
“com
m
un
ic
at
i
on
betwee
n
pe
op
le
with
di
ff
e
rin
g
cultu
ral
id
entit
ie
s”
[1]
or,
quit
e
si
m
ply,
“i
ntercu
lt
ura
l
com
m
un
ic
at
i
on
is
the
s
en
di
ng
a
nd
recei
vin
g
of
m
essages
acro
ss
la
ngua
ges
an
d
cultures
.
It
is
al
so
a
negotia
te
d
unde
rsta
nd
i
ng
of
m
eaning
in
hu
m
an
experiences
acr
os
s
so
ci
al
syst
e
m
s
an
d
so
ci
et
ie
s,”
as
Ar
e
nt
[
12
]
sta
te
s.
H
ow
e
ver,
researc
he
rs
c
onfess
it
is
not
so
sim
ply
def
i
ned.
I
ns
te
a
d,
they
ind
ic
at
e
the
m
any
fact
or
s
an
d
sta
ges
that
ha
ve
been
de
fin
ed
a
re
s
pecific
to
eac
h
in
di
vid
ual
ca
se
a
nd
do
not
app
ly
e
ven
ly
t
o
al
l L
2
le
ar
ners in all
c
on
te
xts.
Lan
gu
a
ge
Lea
rn
i
ng
Strate
gi
es
-
“A
re
flect
ion
of
wh
at
t
he
le
arn
e
r
inte
nd
s
to
do
a
nd
the
s
pecific
act
ion
s
he
[or
sh
e]
can
ta
ke”
to
acq
uire
the
t
arg
et
la
ngua
ge
[
12
]
.
Za
re
[
12
]
fu
rt
her
de
fine
s
these
st
rategi
es
by
sta
ti
ng
that
le
a
rn
i
ng
strat
egie
s
“con
tri
bu
te
di
rectl
y
to
t
he
dev
el
opm
ent
of
the
la
nguag
e
s
yst
e
m
create
d
by
the
la
nguag
e
lear
ne
r”.
Seco
nd
Lan
gu
age
Ac
quisi
ti
on
a
c
ogniti
ve
theo
ry
that
“seeks
to
e
xp
li
cat
e
the
psy
cho
l
og
ic
al
m
echan
ism
s
th
at
un
de
rlie
co
m
pr
ehen
sio
n
a
nd
pro
du
ct
io
n
and
th
e
m
eans
by
wh
ic
h
that
com
petence
de
velo
ps
in the m
ind
of
the lea
r
ner
”
[
13
].
It
is
widely
kn
ow
n
an
d
rec
ognized
by
research
e
rs
an
d
pract
it
ion
ers
tha
t
stud
ent
en
ga
gem
ent
and
par
ti
ci
patio
n
i
n
act
ivit
ie
s
to
help
stu
den
ts
le
arn
a
nd
ac
qu
i
re
a
sec
ond
la
ng
uag
e
usi
ng
a
stu
den
t
-
centere
d
appr
oach
bu
il
ds
sel
f
-
co
nfi
de
nc
e
and
sel
f
-
re
gula
te
d/m
on
it
ored
le
arn
i
ng,
th
us
increa
sin
g
their
sel
f
-
m
otiv
at
ion
to
co
ntinu
e
le
arn
i
ng
a
nd
ac
qu
i
rin
g
the
ta
rg
et
la
ngua
ge
[
10
]
.
It
is
al
so
w
el
l
kn
own
that
m
i
m
ic
r
y,
ro
t
e
m
e
m
or
iz
at
ion
,
an
d
recit
at
io
n
of
le
ng
t
hy
li
sts
of
wor
ds
a
nd
phra
ses
s
erv
e
m
ai
nly
t
o
help
st
ud
e
nt
s
pass
exam
inati
on
s.
This
was
tr
ue
e
ven du
rin
g Xiaolei
’s
form
at
iv
e
sch
ool y
ears
[
14
]
.
In
Wo
lf
f’
s
[
14
]
stud
y,
he
poi
nts
to
the
f
our
great
li
es
(m
yth
s)
i
n
C
hin
a
that
are
relat
e
d
to
En
glish
la
nguag
e
le
a
rni
ng
.
Be
ca
us
e
Xia
olei
is
a
product
of
this
ori
entat
ion
t
o
le
arn
i
ng
E
ngli
sh,
it
helps
rea
de
rs
to
know
an
d
unde
rstan
d
the
str
uggles
sh
e
fac
ed
as
a
ru
ral
pri
m
ary,
m
idd
le
,
and
high
sch
oo
l
stu
den
t
in
China
from
the
m
id
-
1980s
to
ea
rly
-
19
90
s
with
no
acce
ss
to
t
he
In
te
r
net
or
pr
i
n
te
d
E
ngli
sh
e
du
cat
io
nal
m
ater
ia
ls.
Fu
rt
her
m
or
e, t
he
la
ck of nece
ssit
y fo
r Xia
ol
ei
to
“
m
ast
er” Engli
sh
in her y
oung
e
r
ye
ars fo
r
he
r
f
uture s
tud
y o
r
e
m
plo
ym
ent can be see
n
as
in
dicat
ive
of
m
os
t C
hin
ese
stu
de
nts.
In
Wo
l
ff’s
[
14
]
stud
y,
he
a
ddress
es
each
m
yt
h
and
offe
r
s
his
in
-
de
pth
and
rati
onal
ex
planati
on
f
or
wh
y
eac
h
on
e
is
a
li
e
that
is
base
d
on
fact
rathe
r
tha
n
his
own
opinio
n.
The
first
m
yth
is
the
c
omm
on
ly
-
known
re
quire
m
ent
in
Chi
na
that
stu
den
ts
m
us
t
“
m
ast
er”
En
glish
.
O
f
th
e
m
or
e
tha
n
100
diale
ct
s
of
E
ngli
sh
that
m
ay
or
m
ay
no
t
be
intel
li
gib
le
to
sp
ea
ke
rs
of
othe
r
di
al
ect
s,
he
asks:
“
W
hic
h
diale
c
t
sh
ould
they
c
hoos
e
to
m
ast
er
?
”.
M
or
e
over,
he
ask
s:
“Who
has
e
ver
“m
ast
ered
”
the
Eng
li
s
h
la
ngua
ge
?
”
an
d
sta
te
s
that
even
those
Chinese
peopl
e
who
hav
e
a
need
t
o
dem
on
st
rate
their
m
ast
ery
of
the
En
glish
la
ng
ua
ge
a
re
“
no
t
perfect
in E
ng
li
sh
”
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
3
,
Sept
e
m
ber
2019
:
5
1
9
-
5
3
0
522
Addressi
ng
th
e
seco
nd
m
yt
h:
“You
ca
n
on
ly
m
ake
your
En
glish
bette
r
by
sp
ea
king
w
it
h
a
native
sp
ea
ker
,”
Wo
l
f
f
[
14
]
offe
rs
th
is
lon
gst
an
ding
belie
f
that
m
a
ny
Chinese
pe
op
le
ho
l
d
to
da
y.
In
r
eal
it
y,
the
ver
y
lim
it
ed
tim
e
t
hat
Chinese
s
pend
with
st
udents
in
E
ng
li
sh
as
a
Fo
rei
gn
La
ngua
ge/
En
glish
as
a
Seco
nd
Lan
gu
a
ge/E
ng
l
ish
La
ngua
ge
Learn
i
ng
(
EFL
/ESL/
ELL
)
cl
assroom
s
is
so
li
ttle
that
it
cannot
possibly
have
m
uch
of
an
ef
f
ect
on
t
heir
ab
il
ity,
especial
ly
wh
en
st
ud
e
nt
s
are
so
hesita
nt
to
en
gag
e
in
a
con
ve
rsati
on
with
an
E
ngli
sh
s
pe
akin
g forei
gner
; even i
n
t
heir nat
ive la
ngua
ge
.
He
co
ntinu
es
by
addressin
g
the
third
m
yth
:
“C
hin
glish
is
no
good,”
li
sts
al
l
of
the
cou
nt
ries
that
hav
e
c
reated
t
heir
ow
n
va
riant
of
E
ngli
sh
,
and
as
ks
wh
y
China
ha
s
not
fo
ll
owe
d
su
it
with
these
c
ountries
by
dev
el
op
i
ng
it
s
own
va
riant
w
hen
it
has
the
sam
e
righ
t
to
do
s
o
as
oth
e
r
countries
ha
ve
al
read
y
done.
Wh
at
sh
al
l
we
cal
l
t
his
var
ia
nt
?
C
hingli
sh
or
Chi
nese
E
ng
li
sh
?
He
cl
os
es
his
exp
la
natio
n
of
this
m
yt
h
by
po
inti
ng
to
the
sam
e
ou
tc
om
e
as
Kr
as
hen
[
15
]
sta
te
s
-
the
en
d
goal
is
to
com
m
un
icate
com
pr
ehensi
bly,
al
tho
ug
h
no
t
perfect
.
E
xp
ec
ti
ng
m
ast
ery
or
pe
rf
ect
io
n
is
set
ti
ng
the
bar
so
high
that
it
inh
i
bits
“sel
f
-
c
onfide
nce,
i
nt
rinsi
c
m
ot
ivati
on
,
self
-
discipli
ne, an
d dev
el
op au
t
onom
ou
s
learni
ng sk
il
ls”
.
Finall
y,
Wo
lf
f
[
14
]
ex
plains
the
four
t
h
m
yt
h
: “Every
on
e
in
China
nee
ds
to
learn
Engli
sh,
”
thu
s
i
nd
ic
at
in
g
the
tim
e
-
honored,
exam
-
or
ie
nted
natu
re
of
Chinese
e
ducat
i
on.
Whi
le
stu
den
ts
s
pe
nd
m
uch
tim
e
l
is
te
nin
g
to
t
heir
te
achers
’
le
ct
ur
e
an
d
ta
ki
ng
c
op
i
ous
note
s
to
m
e
m
o
rize
and
recit
e,
“t
he
curriculum
is
de
sign
e
d
t
o
te
ac
h
th
e
stu
de
nts
al
l
about
the
E
ng
li
s
h
la
ng
uage
but
n
ot
t
o
le
a
rn
or
ac
quire
it
.
F
or
China,
Wo
l
ff
[
14
]
sta
te
s
“i
t
would
be
far
m
or
e
intel
le
ct
ually
honest...t
o
cl
aim
that
ever
y
on
e
m
us
t
study
En
glish
beca
use
the
cur
re
nt
te
st
-
ori
ented
c
urricul
um
and
t
eachin
g
m
e
thodo
l
og
y
puts
[E
ng
li
s
h]
le
arn
in
g
an
d
acqu
isi
ti
on
beyond reac
h”.
As
re
searc
her
s
hav
e
exam
ined
the
st
a
ges
of
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge
ac
quisi
ti
on
th
at
L2
le
arn
e
rs
m
ov
e
thr
ough
in
the
process
of
ac
quirin
g
a
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge,
R
oberts
on
a
nd
Ford
[
16
]
ex
pand
ed
K
ras
hen’s
[
8
,
16
,
17
]
li
st
of
fi
ve
sta
ges,
to
t
he
six
they
la
beled
as:
(a
)
pr
e
-
pr
oductio
n;
(b
)
ea
rly
producti
o
n;
(c)
sp
eec
h
e
m
erg
ence;
(
d) b
e
ginnin
g flue
ncy;
(
e)
interm
ediat
e flu
e
ncy;
and
(f) a
dv
a
nc
ed flue
ncy.
Be
ginnin
g
with
the
Pr
e
-
Pro
duct
ion
sta
ge
(the
sil
ent
per
io
d),
the
le
arn
e
r
“t
akes
in
the
la
ngua
ge
but
do
e
s
not
s
pea
k
it
”
[
16
]
.
During
the
se
co
nd,
Early
Pro
duct
ion
,
sta
ge
,
the
le
arn
er
“be
gi
ns
to
s
peak
u
sin
g
short
words
an
d
se
nt
ences”
w
hile
m
ai
ntaining
e
m
ph
asi
s
on
li
s
te
nin
g
an
d
m
a
king
m
any
error
s
.
I
n
th
e
thir
d
sta
ge
,
Sp
eec
h
Em
ergent,
t
he
le
ar
ne
r
’s
“s
peec
h
bec
om
es
m
or
e
f
re
qu
e
nt,
but..
.r
el
ie
s
hea
vily
on
con
te
xtu
al
cl
ue
s
an
d
fam
i
li
ar to
pics
”.
Re
achin
g
the
four
t
h
sta
ge,
Be
ginnin
g
Fl
ue
ncy,
“s
peec
h
is
fairly
fl
ue
nt
in
s
ocial
si
tuat
ion
s
with
m
ini
m
al
err
ors”
,
wh
il
e
ga
ps
sti
l
l
exist
in
the
le
arn
er’s
vo
ca
bu
la
ry
a
nd
phrases.
D
ur
i
ng
the
fift
h
sta
ge,
In
te
rm
ediat
e
Fluen
cy
,
t
he
le
arn
e
r
“i
s
able
t
o
s
peak
m
os
t
f
luently
in
ne
w
sit
uations
or
a
cadem
ic
areas”
with
ver
y
f
ew
ga
ps
in
voca
bu
la
ry
and
ex
pr
e
ssio
ns
an
d
bei
ng
“a
ble
to
dem
on
strat
e
highe
r
or
de
r
thin
king
s
ki
ll
s
in
the
second
la
ngua
ge”
.
I
n
the
final
sta
ge
of
A
dv
a
nce
d
F
luency,
the
le
arn
er
“i
s
essenti
al
ly
fluen
t
and
com
fo
rtable
in
com
m
un
ic
at
in
g
in
the
seco
nd
la
ng
ua
ge”
.
Re
achin
g
this
sta
ge,
K
ras
hen
[
12
]
est
i
m
a
te
s
it
ta
king
an
L2
le
ar
ner
a
ppr
ox
im
at
ely
5
-
7
ye
ars
to
acq
uire
a
seco
nd
l
angua
ge,
w
hile
the
act
ual
time
dep
e
nd
s
la
r
ge
ly
on
the
in
div
id
ual
char
act
e
risti
cs
of
ea
ch
la
ngua
ge
le
ar
ner.
R
oberts
on
an
d
Ford
[
16
]
sta
te
cl
early
the
im
po
rtance
that
“eve
ry
EL
L
stu
de
nt
com
es
with
his
or
her
ow
n
un
i
que
la
ngua
ge
a
nd
ed
ucati
on
bac
kgr
ound,
a
nd
t
his
will
hav
e
an i
m
pact
on th
ei
r
E
ng
li
s
h
le
ar
ning
proc
ess”.
Wh
il
e
knowle
dg
e
of
t
he
sta
ges
a
re
vital
in
gaugin
g
pro
gr
ess
wit
h
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge
acqu
isi
ti
on,
hav
i
ng
knowle
dg
e
of
the
m
os
t
eff
ect
ive
le
ar
ning
strat
egies
are
eq
ually
im
po
rtant,
as
in
div
id
ual
le
ar
ne
rs
will
li
kely
be
“at
a
var
ie
ty
of
sta
ge
s
in
t
he
la
ngua
ge
ac
quisi
ti
on
proces
s”
[
16
]
and
re
quire
dif
fer
e
nt
strat
e
gies
that
are
m
entioned
on
pp.
12
-
14.
Howe
ver,
one
of
the
wea
kn
es
ses
in
the
li
te
ratur
e
as
it
relat
es
to
this
stud
y
is
that
m
os
t
stud
ie
s
f
ocus
on
te
ac
he
rs
an
d
t
heir
stu
den
ts
i
n
cl
assr
oo
m
set
ti
ng
s
r
at
her
tha
n
on
people
in
m
ai
ns
tream
so
ci
et
y w
ho ar
e w
it
hout i
ns
tr
uction i
n
a
fo
r
m
al
classroo
m
learnin
g
e
nvir
onm
ent
.
Com
m
on
ly
kn
own
am
on
g
r
esearche
rs
is
the
diale
ct
ic
natu
re
of
sec
ond
la
ng
uage
acqu
isi
ti
on.
Howe
ver,
rese
arch
e
rs
prese
nt
this
diale
ct
ic
view
f
r
om
diff
eren
t
pe
rs
pecti
ves.
Wh
il
e
Ell
is
[
18
]
m
entions
th
e
diale
ct
ic
of
‘a
consci
ous
te
nsi
on
bet
ween
th
e
confli
ct
ing
f
or
ces
of
their
[L2
le
ar
ners]
current
interl
a
ngua
ge
pro
du
ct
io
ns
an
d
the
evide
nce
of
feedbac
k”
,
oth
er
resea
rc
her
s
rec
omm
e
nd
thi
nk
i
ng
a
bout
the
interc
ul
tural
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
as
pect
of
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge
a
cqu
isi
ti
on
as
be
ing
diale
ct
ic
as
“t
he
relat
io
nship
betwee
n
as
pects
of
i
nterc
ultur
a
l
com
m
un
ic
at
i
on
rathe
r
tha
n
viewin
g
t
he
m
in
isolat
ion”
[
9
]
of
eac
h
oth
e
r.
No
m
atter
the
per
s
pecti
ve
on
e
ch
ooses
t
o
vi
ew
these
diale
ct
ic
s,
“t
hin
ki
ng
diale
ct
ic
al
l
y
helps
us
to
see
the
com
plexity
in
culture
and i
de
ntit
y”
[
9
]
.
As
ci
te
d
i
n
Com
m
un
ic
at
ion
s
[
9
]
,
Ma
rtin
and
Na
kayam
a
(19
99)
li
st
and
ex
plain
si
x
di
ff
e
rent
diale
ct
ic
s
of
i
nt
ercu
lt
ural
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
ide
ntif
ie
d
i
n
thei
r
work,
ti
tl
ed:
T
hinkin
g
Dial
ect
ic
al
ly
abo
ut
C
ultur
e
and
C
omm
un
i
cat
ion
,
to
incl
ud
e:
(a
)
cultu
r
al
-
ind
i
vidual;
(b
)
per
s
onal
-
c
onte
xtu
al
;
(c
)
di
ff
e
ren
ces
-
sim
ilariti
es;
(d)
sta
ti
c
-
dy
na
m
ic
;
(e)
histo
r
y/
past
-
present/
fu
t
ur
e;
a
nd
(
f)
pr
i
vilege
-
disa
dv
a
nta
ge
.
T
he
se
la
y
the
f
ou
nd
at
io
n
for
ad
dr
e
ssin
g
the
interplay
of
interc
ultu
r
al
com
m
un
ic
ation
a
nd
relat
ion
s
hi
ps
,
of
w
hich
the
sim
ilariti
es
-
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Cross
-
c
ultur
al
L2
le
arnin
g
ex
chan
ge: a
qu
alit
ative
exam
i
nati
on
of strate
gi
es, to
ols,
c
og
…
(
Rob
e
rt W.
Ell
iott
)
523
diff
e
re
nces
di
al
ect
ic
play
a
n
i
m
po
rta
nt
ro
le
in
easi
ng
the
te
ns
io
ns
by
rev
eal
ing
th
e
com
m
on
al
i
ties
that
unde
rp
i
n
relat
i
on
s
hi
ps
[
9
]
.
Fr
om
the
co
gn
it
ive
neurosci
ence
per
s
pecti
ve
,
K
ro
ll
[
10
]
offe
rs
insi
gh
t
i
nt
o
the
la
c
k
of
r
esearch
that
exam
ines
diff
e
ren
ces
am
on
g
ind
ivi
du
al
s
in
adu
lt
la
ng
ua
ge
le
arn
i
ng
an
d
t
he
pro
blem
s
facing
resea
rchers
i
n
this
area.
S
he
po
i
nts
to
the
f
act
that
“no
t
al
l
aspects
of
la
ngua
ge
proce
s
sing
m
ay
be
s
ensiti
ve
to
the
sa
m
e
cogniti
ve
facto
rs”
a
nd
in
dicat
es
“t
he
devel
opm
ent
of
le
xicon,
g
ram
m
ar,
and
ph
onology
i
n
a
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge
m
ay
fo
ll
ow
a
di
ff
ere
nt
co
urse
”
[
10
]
,
de
pe
nd
i
ng
on
a
pe
rson
’s
age
of
ac
quisi
ti
on
.
S
he
[
10
]
al
so
m
entions
that,
wh
il
e
stud
ie
s
on
the
co
nnect
ion
bet
ween
m
us
ic
abili
ty
an
d
seco
nd
la
ng
ua
ge
acq
uisit
ion,
there
m
a
y
be
so
m
e
truth
to
m
us
ic
abili
ty
m
aking
a
per
s
on
m
or
e
sensiti
ve
to
the
so
und
str
uctu
r
e
of
a
la
ngua
ge
m
aking
this
f
act
or
sta
nd out f
r
om
oth
e
rs
to
“ena
bl
e them
to
com
pr
e
he
nd or s
pe
ak wor
ds
a
nd s
entences
in
t
ha
t l
anguag
e
”
Kroll
[
10
]
go
es
on
t
o
e
xpla
in
the
m
ixed
fin
di
ngs
re
ga
rd
i
ng
the
co
nnect
ions
betw
een
w
orkin
g
m
e
m
or
y
and
s
econd
la
ngua
ge
acq
uisit
ion
i
n
te
rm
s
of
pro
cessi
ng
sp
ee
d
and
the
s
pee
d
of
t
ran
sla
ti
on
wh
e
re
cognates
exist.
Wh
il
e
sh
e
m
e
ntions
the
poss
ible
eff
ect
s
tha
t
ind
ivid
ual
le
arn
e
r
cha
racteri
sti
cs
hav
e
on
sec
ond
la
nguag
e
ac
qui
sit
ion
,
the
c
harac
te
risti
cs
sh
e
m
entions
are
r
est
rict
ed
m
os
tly
to
error
m
aking
w
hen
tra
ns
l
at
ing
from
the
nativ
e
la
ngua
ge
to
the
sec
ond
la
ng
uag
e
an
d
does
no
t
m
ention
i
ndivid
ual
c
har
a
ct
erist
ic
s
of
a
ge
,
sex
,
nationalit
y,
or
oth
er
dem
ogr
aph
ic
fact
or
s
.
On
the
oth
er
hand,
s
he
[
10
]
do
es
inclu
de
the
work
of
U
llm
an
(20
01,
2004)
as
a
pr
om
isi
ng
directi
on
in
researc
h
as
it
include
s
“a
provocati
ve
cl
ai
m
abo
ut
w
hy
seco
nd
la
nguag
e
le
a
rni
ng
is
ty
pical
ly
m
or
e
diff
ic
ult
for
ad
ults
than
f
or
yo
ung
child
re
n”,
di
ff
ere
nces
in
neura
l
functi
onin
g
f
or
le
arn
in
g
a
sec
ond
la
ng
uag
e
ver
s
us
le
ar
ning
a
first
la
ngua
ge
,
an
d
supe
rior
declarat
ive
m
e
m
or
y
diff
e
re
nces
am
ong
m
en
an
d
wo
m
en
bei
ng
pr
e
dictor
s
of
s
uccess
fu
l
la
ng
uag
e
le
a
rn
e
rs.
As
wit
h
the
e
xisti
ng
li
te
ratur
e
on
th
e
sta
g
es
of
ac
qu
isi
ti
on,
m
os
t
li
te
ratur
e
relat
ed
to
the
diale
ct
ic
al
per
sp
ect
ives
of
inte
rcul
tural
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
m
ai
ntains
a
f
ocus
on
cl
assr
oo
m
-
base
d
le
a
rn
i
ng
rat
her
th
an
on
in
div
i
dual
le
arn
in
g
out
side
the
form
al
cl
assroom
se
tt
ing
.
Howev
e
r,
kn
ow
le
dg
e
of
the f
i
ndi
ng
s and practi
cal
i
m
pl
ic
at
ion
s can
pro
ve
hel
pful in
an
in
div
i
du
al
’
s
unde
rstan
ding
that
ca
n
ser
ve
to
help
i
ndividu
al
L
2
le
a
rn
e
rs
m
ake
good
pro
gr
e
ss
in
the
i
r
la
nguag
e
ac
qu
i
sit
ion
ef
f
or
ts.
In
ge
ner
al
,
re
searche
rs
a
gre
e
that
la
ngua
ge
acq
uisit
ion
and
le
ar
ning
r
equ
i
res
thi
nk
i
ng
by
bo
t
h
stud
e
nts
a
nd
te
achers
.
A
gai
n,
the
resea
rch
in
this
area
is
res
tric
te
d
m
os
tl
y
to
cl
assr
oo
m
-
ba
sed
le
ar
ning
r
at
her
than
on
in
div
id
ual
L2
le
arn
e
rs
in
a
no
n
-
acad
e
m
ic
setting
.
Wh
at
is
no
t
m
entione
d
acr
os
s
m
uch
o
f
the
li
te
ratur
e
is
the
r
ole
of
c
ogniti
on
a
nd
tr
anslat
ion,
wh
ic
h
occ
ur
s
m
os
t
of
te
n
in
L
2
le
a
rn
e
rs,
an
d
is
f
oc
us
e
d
pr
im
arily
on
cl
assroom
sit
uations
.
Wh
e
n
Chinese
stu
de
nts
rea
d
or
li
ste
n
to
E
ng
li
s
h,
they
oft
en
sp
e
nd
m
uch
of
t
he
ir
tim
e
translat
ing
fro
m
Eng
li
sh
to
Chinese,
a
nd
then
b
ac
k
to
E
ng
li
s
h
to
gi
ve
their
res
pons
e
,
wh
e
n
re
quire
d.
This
is
the
m
os
t
basic
form
of
translat
ion
as
it
occu
r
s
in
L2
le
arn
in
g.
I
ns
te
ad
,
Kr
a
sh
e
n
[
15
]
sta
te
s
it
is
m
or
e
eff
ect
ive
to
le
arn
the
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge
the
sam
e
way
t
hey
le
arn
e
d
an
d
acq
uire
d
their
native
la
ngua
ge
w
hen
they
wer
e
a
child.
Althou
gh
not
al
ways
gram
m
at
ic
a
ll
y
c
orrect
or
pe
rf
e
ct
,
it
m
os
t
of
te
n
res
u
lt
s
in
co
m
pr
ehen
sible
En
glish
-
the
e
nd
goal
f
or
interc
ultu
ral
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
i
n
a
va
riet
y
of
co
ntexts
.
Inste
ad,
te
ac
hers
sp
e
nd
m
uch
of
thei
r
tim
e
te
achi
ng
gr
am
m
ar
wh
ic
h
K
ras
hen
[
15,
17
,
19
]
ex
plains
is
not
ver
y
vital
in
seco
nd
la
nguage
acq
ui
sit
ion
-
good
gr
am
m
ar co
m
es w
it
h
ti
m
e and
e
xperie
nce
us
in
g
t
he
l
angua
ge.
As
com
par
ed
to
oth
er
c
on
te
xts
of
the
E
ngli
sh
la
ngua
ge
,
com
m
un
ic
at
i
on
in
interc
ultur
al
m
arit
a
l
r
el
at
ion
s
hip
s
is
m
uch
dif
fer
e
nt
than
that
in
ot
her
relat
ion
s
hi
ps
.
Be
cause
th
e
com
m
un
ic
at
i
on
to
pics
a
re
m
os
t
of
te
n
var
ie
d
and
una
ntici
pa
te
d,
iss
ues
a
rise
bet
ween
the
tw
o
pe
op
l
e.
T
his
is
pa
rtic
ularly
evi
de
nt
in
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
in
volvi
ng
ot
her
fam
il
y
m
e
m
ber
s
who
ha
ve
nev
e
r
ac
qu
ired
t
he
ta
r
get
la
ngua
ge.
Fa
m
ily
m
at
te
rs
inv
olvi
ng
pe
rs
on
al
it
ie
s,
m
on
ey
,
prop
e
rty
,
trans
portat
io
n,
an
d
tim
e
co
m
e
int
o
play
betwee
n
the
couples,
thei
r
fam
il
ie
s,
and
fr
ie
nds.
As
su
c
h,
this
oft
en
cha
nges
th
e
con
te
xt
and
dynam
ic
s
of
their
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
w
hile
of
te
n
changin
g
the
r
ole
of
each
pe
rson
in
their
c
omm
un
ic
at
ion
to
being
a
tra
ns
la
tor
betwee
n
their
par
t
ner
a
nd
his
/her
fam
il
y.
W
hile
this
can
be
viewe
d
as
a
chall
enge
for
the
pe
rson
tra
nsl
at
ing
betwee
n
the
two
la
ng
uages,
this
chall
eng
i
ng
r
ole
can
al
so
be
viewe
d
as
a
strat
egy
for
helping
the
L
2
le
arn
er
acqu
i
re
the
ta
r
get
la
ngua
ge
without
reali
zi
ng
it
.
It
is
al
so
worth
m
entioning
the
te
nde
ncy
of
L
2
le
ar
ner
s
t
o
translat
e
from
the
ta
rg
et
la
ng
uag
e
t
o
their
na
ti
ve
la
nguag
e
fo
r
m
aking
c
onnecti
on
s
wit
h
w
hat
they
al
read
y
know
is
ver
y
c
omm
on
.
This
t
end
e
ncy
a
nd
th
e
eff
ect
s
it
has
on
L
2
le
ar
ning
a
nd
acq
uisit
ion
are
not
a
ddress
e
d
com
m
on
ly
in
t
he
li
te
ratur
e
as
“st
ud
ie
s
on
re
al
-
tim
e
pr
ocess
es
in
seco
nd
la
ngua
ge
com
prehensi
on”
are
sti
ll
in
their in
fancy
[
13
].
As
wit
h
le
ar
ni
ng
a
ny
la
ngua
ge,
th
ere
a
re
con
te
xtu
al
fa
ct
or
s
that
det
erm
ine
the
sta
ge/le
vel
of
la
nguag
e
ac
quisi
ti
on
an
L
2
le
arn
e
r
of
any
a
ge
will
achiev
e.
Wh
il
e
m
any
stud
ie
s
exam
ine
co
ntext
ual
f
act
or
s
thr
ough
an
aca
dem
ic
le
ns
,
m
uch
resea
rch
in
this
a
r
ea
is
f
ocused
on
rela
ti
on
s
hip
s
i
n
pr
act
ic
al
,
non
-
ac
adem
ic
set
ti
ng
s.
As
i
nd
ic
at
ed
bri
efl
y
in
the
prev
iou
s
sect
io
n,
con
te
xt
play
s
a
sign
ific
a
nt
ro
le
in
i
nter
cultural
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
.
As
m
arit
al
relat
ion
sh
i
ps
c
onti
nu
e
to
gro
w
,
m
or
e
issues
betwee
n
fam
i
l
y
and
f
ri
en
ds
e
m
erg
e
and
e
nter
i
nto
conve
rsati
ons.
Wh
il
e
this
of
te
n
places
a
la
rge
dem
and
on
L
2
le
ar
ner
s
,
it
can
be
quit
e
hea
lt
hy
in
the gr
ow
t
h
a
nd acq
uisit
ion
of
the tar
get lan
guage
s
of
both
L2
le
ar
ne
rs.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
3
,
Sept
e
m
ber
2019
:
5
1
9
-
5
3
0
524
Rob
e
rtson
a
nd
Fo
r
d
[
16
]
pro
vi
de
a
li
st
of
s
ugge
ste
d
i
ns
tr
uc
ti
on
al
strat
e
gies
f
or
eac
h
sta
ge
of
sec
ond
la
nguag
e
ac
quisi
ti
on
w
hile
focusin
g
on
the
need
t
o
m
od
el
the
la
nguag
e
with
co
rr
ect
E
ng
li
s
h
phrasi
ng,
use
appr
opriat
e
ge
stures
a
nd
body
la
ngua
ge
,
and
av
oid
exc
essive
er
r
or
c
orrecti
on.
T
he
y
go
on
to
in
cl
ude
reco
m
m
en
dations
su
c
h
as
sc
affoldin
g,
us
i
ng
c
ognates,
prov
i
ding
e
xp
li
ci
t
vo
ca
bula
ry
instr
uction,
c
orrecti
ng
error
s
intenti
onal
ly
and
ap
pr
opriat
el
y,
an
d
l
earn
i
ng
the
st
udents
’
la
ng
uage.
Wh
at
is o
bv
i
ou
s
in
t
he
li
te
r
at
ur
e
is
the
focus
of
stud
ie
s
on
cl
ass
room
te
aching
and
le
ar
ni
ng,
with
ve
ry
li
tt
l
e
directi
on
f
or
L2
le
ar
ner
s
i
n
no
n
-
academ
ic
setti
ng
s
.
Lo
ok
i
ng
s
pecif
ic
al
ly
at
the
fa
ct
or
s
t
hat
in
flu
ence
t
he
c
ho
ic
e
of
le
ar
ning
strat
egies,
Zare
[
11
]
revea
ls
consi
der
a
ble
i
nfor
m
at
ion
tha
t
po
i
nts
to
L
2
le
arn
e
rs’
“d
e
gr
ee
of
a
war
e
ness,
age
,
se
x,
natio
nalit
y,
le
arn
i
ng
sty
le
,
per
s
onal
it
y
trai
ts,
m
oti
vation,
le
ar
ning
c
on
te
xt,
a
nd
la
ngua
ge
pro
fici
ency”
an
d
m
entions
a
dva
nce
d
le
arn
er
s
us
in
g
their
ch
oices
m
or
e
fr
eq
uen
tl
y.
Wh
at
is
no
t
m
entioned
th
e
relat
ion
s
hip
betwee
n
L2
le
arn
e
rs’
desire
d
ac
hiev
e
m
ent level an
d
thei
r
c
ho
ic
e
of lea
rn
i
ng stra
te
gies
an
d
c
ultur
al
var
ia
ti
on
.
Fo
r
t
he
tradit
ion
al
colle
ge
-
a
ged
C
hin
ese
st
ud
e
nts
li
ving
in
China
,
it
is
fair
to
say
that
m
os
t
receive
their
colle
ge
-
le
vel
En
glish
e
du
cat
io
n
in
a
n
in
-
cl
ass
en
vir
on
m
ent.
As
f
or
ad
ult
Chines
e
L2
le
arn
e
rs,
their
op
ti
ons
f
or
rec
ei
vin
g
a
f
or
m
al
Eng
li
sh
ed
uc
at
ion
in
a
physi
cal
cl
assro
om
set
ti
ng
in
China
are
quit
e
lim
it
ed.
Fr
om
this, m
os
t C
hin
ese a
dult
s who ha
ve
t
he
d
esi
re
to res
um
e
acqu
iri
ng a
nd
le
ar
ning a s
econd la
ngua
ge
o
fte
n
r
eso
rt
to
us
in
g
m
ob
il
e
softwa
re
ap
plica
ti
on
s
that
are
ei
ther
fr
ee
acce
s
s
or
require
a
paid
annual
s
ubscr
ipti
on
on
a self
-
paced, self
-
stu
dy b
a
s
is
-
le
arn as yo
u go.
The
gro
wing
c
ho
ic
es
of
m
ob
i
le
onli
ne
E
ngli
sh
le
a
rn
i
ng
ap
pl
ic
at
ion
s
are
num
ero
us,
but
th
e
qual
i
ty
of
the
pr
ogram
s,
as
with
any
m
ob
il
e
sec
ond
la
ngua
ge
le
ar
ning
a
pp
li
cat
io
n,
are
no
t
regulat
ed
to
a
gr
eat
e
xtent,
i
f
at
al
l.
Ho
we
ve
r,
that
does
not
keep
them
fr
om
con
ti
nu
in
g
their
existe
nc
e.
These
c
ho
ic
es
include
acc
ess
t
o
public
W
eC
ha
t
pr
ogram
s
that
are
m
os
tl
y
a
t
no
co
st,
an
d
var
i
ou
s
a
pp
li
c
at
ion
s
that
are
desig
ned
m
os
tl
y
to
translat
e.
Wh
il
e
the
le
ss
desi
rab
le
a
pp
li
cat
ion
s
re
quire
de
vo
ti
ng
m
uch
t
i
m
e
and
ef
f
or
t
,
an
d
a
re
no
t
ver
y
correct
in
their
la
ngua
ge,
th
e
m
or
e
desira
ble
app
li
cat
io
ns
to
us
e
are
tho
s
e
that
of
fe
r
sh
ort
er
segm
ents
of
la
nguag
e
te
ach
ing
th
at
are
f
oc
us
e
d
on
s
peci
fic
aspects
of
t
he
la
ng
uag
e
.
A
lso,
the
m
or
e
f
avora
ble
ch
oices
are
tho
se
that
inc
lud
e
so
m
e
so
rt
of
real
-
ti
m
e
feed
ba
ck
c
om
po
ne
nt
us
i
ng
vo
ic
e
-
rec
ogniti
on
an
d
arti
fici
al
intel
li
gen
ce
to
pro
d
uce
pre
-
re
corde
d
verbal
feedbac
k
to
th
e
le
arn
e
r.
A
gai
n,
beca
us
e
of
t
heir
fr
ee
or
l
ow
c
os
t,
the accu
racy
of the
feedbac
k m
ay
b
e lac
king
.
Othe
r
strat
e
gies
inclu
de
readi
ng
pr
i
nted
bo
ok
s
an
d
e
-
bo
oks
a
vaila
ble
onli
ne,
a
nd
watchin
g
a
nd
li
ste
nin
g
to
pre
-
rec
orde
d
vide
o
prese
ntati
on
s
an
d
au
dio
books.
Howe
ve
r,
ch
oices
an
d
sel
ect
ion
s
a
r
e
base
d
la
rg
el
y
on
acce
ss
and
c
os
t
for
the
avail
able
r
eso
ur
ces
,
not
to
m
ention
ind
i
viduals’
m
otivati
on
an
d
acq
ui
sit
ion
le
vels
they
wish
to
ac
hieve.
Of
te
n
ti
m
es,
people
resort
t
o
us
in
g
a
stra
te
gy
with
w
hich
they
a
re
al
read
y
fam
i
li
ar ev
en
thou
gh it
m
a
y or
m
ay
n
ot b
e
ef
fecti
ve
f
or the
m
as an
adult
.
Fo
r
the
m
arr
ie
d
co
uple
w
ho
desire
to
est
abl
ish
a
ta
r
get
la
ngua
ge
to
com
m
un
ic
at
e
with
each
ot
her,
it
is
fair
to
say
that
s
om
e
choo
se
f
or
one
to
le
arn
an
d
acq
ui
re
the
oth
er
’s
la
nguag
e
to
va
ryi
ng
de
grees
wh
il
e
oth
e
rs
ch
oose
to
pursu
e
le
arn
i
ng
a
nd
ac
qu
i
rin
g
each
oth
e
r’
s
la
ng
ua
ge
f
or
en
ha
nc
ed
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
,
especial
ly
f
or t
op
ic
s t
hat r
e
qu
ire m
or
e ad
vanced lan
guage
s
kill
s
[1
-
4]
.
Re
al
iz
ing
it
takes a
p
er
son
5
-
7
ye
a
rs on
aver
a
ge
to
ac
quire
fl
uen
cy
in
a
second
la
ng
uag
e
,
a
pe
rson
m
us
t
be
per
si
ste
nt
and
patie
nt
in
their
la
ngua
ge
acqu
isi
ti
on e
ffor
ts.
Com
m
on
ly
known
as
the
”D
igit
al
Divid
e
,”
this
te
rm
was
first
us
e
d
at
a
tim
e
wh
en
c
el
l
per
s
on
al
com
pu
te
r
te
ch
n
ol
og
y
was
no
t
ye
t
widely
a
vaila
ble
in
the
U.
S
.
Th
us
,
it
s
m
eaning
had
a
diff
e
re
nt
e
m
ph
a
sis
wh
ic
h
was
on
that
portio
n
of
the
U.
S
.
popu
la
ti
on
that
did
no
t
ha
ve
acce
s
s
to
c
om
pu
te
rs
[
9
].
S
oon
a
fte
r,
t
he
m
eaning
e
xpa
nd
e
d
t
o
inclu
de
acce
ss
to
the
In
te
r
net
a
nd
c
el
l
phon
es
.
Als
o
in
dicat
ed,
t
he
se
tro
ubli
ng
ga
ps
i
n
acce
ss
sti
ll
exi
st
tod
ay
,
no
t
only
in
m
any
ar
eas
of
de
velo
pi
ng
co
untrie
s
l
ike
Chi
na,
but
al
so
in
pa
rts
of
the
U.
S
.
increa
sin
g
the
cult
ur
al
a
nd
s
ocial
ineq
ua
li
ti
es
that
hav
e
long
existe
d
in
the
U.S.
[
9
]
.
The
aut
hor
[
9
]
go
e
s
on
to
sta
te
“ab
ou
t
11
m
il
l
ion
r
ur
al
Am
erica
ns
a
re
un
a
ble
t
o
get
[
broa
dba
nd
]
se
r
vice
at
ho
m
e”
and
wit
h
“s
o
m
uch
o
f
our
d
a
il
y l
ives
on
li
ne
, it p
uts th
os
e
who
a
re
n
ot conn
ect
e
d
at
a
d
i
sad
van
ta
ge”
.
In
Chi
na,
acce
ss
to
certai
n
a
pp
li
cat
io
ns
an
d
m
edia
so
ur
c
es
that
are
be
nef
ic
ia
l
to
L2
le
arn
in
g
are
ham
per
ed
by
gove
rn
m
ent
en
forced
fire
wall
s
that
bl
ock
a
ccess
to
sit
es,
su
c
h
as
Face
book,
YouT
ub
e,
an
d
Goo
gle.
Howe
ver,
m
or
e
pe
ople
are
res
or
ti
ng
to
the
us
e
of
a
virtu
al
pr
i
vate
netw
ork
(VP
N)
t
o
acce
ss
sit
es
an
d
even the
us
e
of
g
est
ur
es
and
body la
ngua
ge
will
to
hel
p
t
he
m
to acquire t
he
ir seco
nd lan
guage
.
2.
RESEA
R
CH MET
HO
D
This
autoet
hn
ogra
ph
ic
case
stud
y
em
plo
ys
the
us
e
of
researc
her
c
on
st
ru
ct
e
d
se
m
i
-
structur
e
d
intervie
w
it
e
m
s
to
so
li
ci
t
rich
qual
it
at
ive
respon
ses
from
bo
t
h
sub
j
ect
s,
and
the
us
e
of
the
W
eC
hat
so
ci
al
m
edia
platfo
r
m
fo
r
tra
ns
la
ti
ng
the
sur
vey
it
e
m
s
to
Chin
ese
f
or
Xia
ole
i’s
inc
rease
d
unde
rstan
ding
of
eac
h
it
e
m
.
In
ad
diti
on,
a
ha
ndhel
d
Sony
ICD
-
P
620
dig
it
al
rec
orde
r
will
be
use
d
to
c
ollec
t
ver
bal
re
spo
ns
e
s
fro
m
bo
t
h
s
ubj
ect
s
f
or m
anu
al
transc
riptio
n
to
ele
ct
ronic doc
ume
nts.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Cross
-
c
ultur
al
L2
le
arnin
g
ex
chan
ge: a
qu
alit
ative
exam
i
nati
on
of strate
gi
es, to
ols,
c
og
…
(
Rob
e
rt W.
Ell
iott
)
525
As
Cres
well
&
Plano
-
Cl
ar
k
[
20
]
ex
plains
,
a
narrati
ve
stu
dy
,
su
ch
a
s
this
on
e
,
“nee
ds
to
fin
d
one
or
m
or
e
ind
ivid
ua
ls
to
stu
dy,
in
div
id
uals
who
are
acce
ssible,
will
ing
to
pro
vid
e
in
f
or
m
at
i
on,
an
d
disti
nc
ti
ve
in
their
accom
pli
sh
m
ents
and
ordina
riness
or
w
ho
s
hed
li
gh
t
on
a
sp
e
ci
fic
ph
e
no
m
enon
or
issue
bei
ng
exp
l
or
e
d”.
A
nd,
in
ste
ad
of
f
ocusi
ng
on
th
e
rig
ht
quest
io
ns
to
as
k,
“t
he
fo
c
us
is
on
th
e
stories
t
o
e
m
erg
e,
recog
nizing
th
at
a
ll
peo
ple
ha
ve
stories
to
t
el
l”
.
Du
ri
ng
in
te
rv
ie
ws
bein
g
condu
ct
e
d,
im
portance
is
gi
ve
n
to
data
colle
ct
ion
that
involves
a
“wide
ar
ray
of
proce
dures
as
the
resea
rcher
buil
ds
a
n
in
-
de
pth
picture
of
th
e
case”
an
d
nee
ds
to
f
ollo
w
a
prot
oco
l
a
nd,
if
po
s
sible,
“a
qu
ie
t
l
ocati
on
f
re
e
from
distract
ion
s”
for
c
onduct
ing
the
inter
view
.
Creswell
&
Pl
ano
-
Cl
ar
k
[20]
sta
te
al
so
,
“
observ
i
ng
in
a
se
tt
ing
is
a
s
pecial
sk
il
l
that
re
qu
i
re
s
addressi
ng
iss
ues
s
uc
h
as
t
he
po
te
ntial
de
cepti
on
of
th
e
pe
op
le
bein
g
inte
rv
ie
we
d
”
an
d
“
highli
ghts
th
e
i
m
po
rtance
of
ref
le
ct
in
g
ab
out
the
relat
io
nship
betwee
n
t
he
inter
viewe
r
and
i
nter
view
ee”
.
As
one
f
orm
of
ob
s
er
vation,
Y
in
[
21
]
sup
por
ts
Creswell
&
Plano
i
Cl
ar
k
by
sta
ti
ng
m
or
e
s
pecifica
ll
y:
“fo
r
case
s
tud
ie
s,
‘list
ening’
m
ea
ns
receiv
i
ng
in
form
at
ion
thr
ough
m
ulti
ple
m
od
al
it
ie
s
-
fo
r
exam
ple,
m
aki
ng
keen
ob
se
r
vations
or
se
ns
in
g
what
m
igh
t
be
going
on
-
not
just
aur
al
m
od
al
ity”
.
Althou
gh
Me
rr
ia
m
[
22
,
23
]
f
oc
us
es
m
os
tl
y
on
cond
ucting ca
s
e stu
dies in
e
ducat
ion
al
sett
ing
s, he
r wor
k
le
nd
s
it
sel
f
to
the
d
esi
gn of this
case st
udy.
The
sub
j
ect
s
in
this
st
ud
y
a
re
Rob
e
rt
a
nd
his
wife,
Xia
olei,
l
iving
to
gethe
r
in
Linyi
,
China
.
Ro
be
rt,
a
56
-
ye
ar
old
A
m
erican
m
al
e,
is
an
associat
e
prof
ess
or
wi
th
his
Ph.D
.
in
Highe
r
Ed
uc
at
ion
Re
searc
h
an
d
Xiaolei
,
a
38
-
y
ear
old
Chi
ne
se
fem
al
e,
is
an
est
ablis
hed
wr
it
er
of
Chi
nese
with
a
vocat
ion
al
high
sch
oo
l
edu
cat
io
n
i
n
C
hin
a.
Fo
ll
owin
g
Alr
eck
&
Sett
le
’s
[24]
su
ggest
io
ns
,
the
re
searc
her
-
co
ns
tr
ucte
d
inter
view
it
em
s
con
sist
of
14
open
-
e
nd
e
d
sta
tem
ents
to
so
li
ci
t
in
-
de
pth
respo
ns
es
f
r
om
bo
th
s
ubj
ect
s.
These
it
em
s
are
desi
gn
e
d
to
fo
c
us
on
their
per
s
onal
exp
e
rience
s
du
ri
ng
their
childho
od
f
oc
usi
ng
m
os
tl
y
on
la
ng
ua
ge
le
ar
ning
w
hile
at
t
end
i
ng
pr
im
ary
and
s
econda
ry
sch
ool,
but
al
so
on
their
go
al
s
,
chall
enges
fac
ed,
a
nd
th
e
re
so
u
rces
they
use
d
to
acqu
i
re th
ei
r
f
orei
gn lan
guage
in
a
du
lt
ho
od.
Using
set
s
of
t
hr
ee
inte
rv
ie
w
it
e
m
s
per
sess
ion
,
eac
h
set
will
be
sh
are
d
with
both
s
ubje
ct
s;
Xiaolei
via
W
eC
hat
f
or
her
t
o
thin
k
about
pri
or
to
cond
ucting
eac
h
inter
view
se
ssion,
an
d
Ro
be
rt
wi
ll
rev
ie
w
an
d
respo
nd
to
the
it
e
m
s
in
the
e
le
ct
ro
nic
doc
um
ent.
Du
ri
ng
each
sessio
n,
e
ach
it
e
m
wil
l
be
read
al
ou
d
befor
e
respo
nd
i
ng.
Xi
aolei
will
be
t
he
first
to
be
intervie
wed
for
al
l
three
it
em
s,
and
Rob
er
t
will
be
the
l
ast
to
respo
nd
to
t
he
intervie
w
it
e
m
s.
T
ho
se
it
e
m
s
ab
ou
t
la
ngua
ge
le
arn
i
ng
i
n
pri
m
ary
and
sec
onda
ry
sch
ool
po
s
e
d
to Ro
ber
t
will
focu
s
on learni
ng E
ngli
sh
in
ste
ad of
Chine
se.
Af
te
r
c
om
pletin
g
eac
h
inter
view
sessio
n,
th
e
dig
it
al
vo
ic
e
file
s
con
ta
inin
g
Xiaolei
’s
re
s
pons
es
will
be
tra
ns
cri
bed
m
anu
al
ly
to
a
separ
at
e
el
ect
r
on
ic
do
c
um
ent,
w
hile
Rob
e
rt
will
ty
pe
his
re
sp
onses
directl
y
into
the
W
or
d
docu
m
ent
con
ta
inin
g
the
inter
view
it
e
m
s
[24]
.
Xi
aolei
will
be
aske
d
to
do
a
m
e
m
ber
chec
k
of
he
r
respo
ns
es
to
m
ake
any
c
ha
nges
sh
e
fin
ds
ne
cessary.
Af
te
r
al
l
session
s
a
re
com
plete
and
al
l
dig
it
al
file
s
hav
e
been
store
d
i
n
the
la
pt
op
com
pu
te
r,
the
do
c
um
ents
will
be
analy
zed
to
pro
du
c
e
qu
al
it
at
ive
f
ind
in
gs
for disc
us
si
on.
3.
RESU
LT
S
A
ND D
I
SCUS
S
ION
S
The
resu
lt
s
of
the
qual
it
at
ive
analy
ses
dis
play
ed
in
Tab
le
s
1
an
d
2
a
re
the
res
ults
of
i
n
-
de
pt
h
analy
ses
of
th
ei
r
tho
r
ough
r
esp
on
ses
to
th
e
14
inter
view
qu
est
io
ns
,
car
efu
l
obser
vatio
ns
,
an
d
inf
orm
at
io
n
colle
ct
ed
from
deep
co
nversa
ti
on
s
ab
out
the
pr
el
im
inary
find
i
ngs
from
th
is
and
ot
her
re
le
van
t
stu
dies.
Mo
r
e
sp
eci
f
ic
al
ly
,
T
able
1
pro
vid
e
s
a
visu
al
re
presentat
ion
of
t
he
sim
il
arities
an
d
dif
fer
e
nc
es
in
t
he
i
nd
i
vidual
dem
og
ra
ph
ic
c
har
act
erist
ic
s
of Ro
be
rt and
X
ia
olei.
Am
ong t
he
li
st of 27
c
har
act
erist
ic
s,
on
ly
6
a
re s
im
i
la
r.
In
ad
diti
on,
Ta
ble
2
dis
play
s
the
inters
ect
io
n
of
the
14
the
m
es
(categ
or
ie
s)
a
nd
45
sub
-
t
hem
es
(sub
-
cat
egories)
with the
3 ove
rar
c
hing them
es
(c
at
egories)
fou
nd
durin
g
t
he
a
na
ly
sis of
t
he qua
li
ta
ti
ve
data.
As
with
m
os
t
c
ase
stud
y
resea
rch,
this
stud
y
has
assum
ption
s
an
d
lim
i
ta
tio
ns.
The
ass
um
pt
ion
s
we
re
that
al
l
com
m
un
ic
at
io
n
betw
een
R
ob
e
rt
a
nd
Xiaolei
relat
ed
to
the
to
pics
of
this
stu
dy
w
ou
l
d
be
c
om
ple
te
l
y
unde
rstood
by
both
of
t
hem
,
an
d
that
bo
t
h
woul
d
pr
ov
i
de
honest
a
nd
t
hor
ough
res
po
ns
es
t
o
the
i
nterv
ie
w
it
e
m
s.
Altho
ug
h
Xiaolei
’s
E
ngli
sh
voca
bu
l
a
ry
was
quit
e
lim
it
ed,
her
det
erm
inati
on
to
know
preci
sel
y
tho
se
words
a
nd
ph
r
ases
that
seem
ed
unfam
iliar
to
her
co
uple
d
with
her
bei
ng
able
t
o
c
onfir
m
her
unde
rsta
nd
i
ngs
with
R
ob
e
rt
m
ade
t
hese
ass
um
pt
ion
s v
al
id.
The
li
m
i
ta
ti
on
s
of
this
stu
dy
i
nclu
de
t
he
l
ack
of g
ene
rali
zab
il
ity
to
the
la
rg
e
r
popu
la
ti
on
of
interc
ultur
al
c
ouples
,
w
hich
is
a
tra
de
-
off
f
or
the
de
pth
a
nd
rich
ne
ss
of
their
narrati
ve
respo
ns
es.
T
he
refor
e
,
it
is
up
to
the
rea
der
s
to
determ
ine
the
ap
plica
bili
ty
of
the
fin
dings
f
ro
m
this
stud
y
to
th
ei
r
own
uniq
ue
sit
uations,
as
A
lreck
&
Set
tl
e
[2
4],
Me
rr
i
a
m
[2
2,
23
]
,
and
Cres
well
&
Plano
-
Cl
ar
k
ind
ic
at
e
.
More
ov
e
r,
a
s
the
rea
de
rs
pour
ove
r
ot
her
stud
ie
s
t
hat
sh
a
r
e
si
m
il
ar
fo
ci
to
this
st
ud
y,
th
ey
are
li
kely
to
arr
i
ve
at
si
m
il
ar co
nc
lusio
ns
a
nd cr
ossroa
ds re
veale
d
in
this st
ud
y.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
3
,
Sept
e
m
ber
2019
:
5
1
9
-
5
3
0
526
Table
1.
T
hem
es (
cat
eg
ori
es) a
nd S
ub
-
them
es (
s
ub
-
cat
eg
ori
es) of
com
m
on
al
it
ie
s an
d diffe
ren
ces
b
et
wee
n
stud
y
par
ti
ci
pa
nts’
i
nd
i
vidual
char
act
e
risti
cs
Participan
ts
Ch
arac
teristics
Ro
b
er
Xiao
lei
*
*
Cu
ltu
re
W
este
rn
East Asian
*
*
Gen
d
er
Male
Fe
m
ale
*
*
Ag
e
56
38
*
*
Po
sition in
Fa
m
i
ly
Yo
u
n
g
est o
f
f
iv
e
Old
est o
f
three
*
Parental Inf
lu
en
ce
Mos
tly
Moth
er
Mos
tly
Moth
er
*
*
Fa
m
il
y
Inco
m
e
Level
Midd
le
Low
*
*
Ch
ild
h
o
o
d
Ho
m
eto
wn
Urban
Ru
ral
*
*
Pri
m
ar
y
an
d
Seco
n
d
ary
Sch
o
o
lin
g
Pu
b
lic 1
–
1
2
(co
m
p
u
lso
ry
grad
es K
–
12)
Pu
b
lic Pr
e
-
K
–
1
2
(
n
o
t co
m
p
u
lso
ry)
*
*
Sch
o
o
l Fundin
g
State
-
f
u
n
d
ed
K
–
1
2
,
ex
cept
sch
o
o
l su
p
p
lies
State
-
f
u
n
d
ed
1
–
9
;
e
x
cept
schoo
l
su
p
p
lies
f
a
m
ily
p
a
id
all
tu
itio
n
f
o
r
h
ig
h
sch
o
o
l 10
–
12
*
Pu
b
lic Scho
o
lin
g
Ages
4
–
17
6
–
19
*
*
Grade L
ev
els
Le
arnin
g
E
n
g
lish
Pre
-
K
–
12
7
–
9
,
n
o
n
e in h
ig
h
sch
o
o
l
*
*
Clas
s Size
~2
0
~5
0
–
60
*
*
Clas
sro
o
m
Co
n
d
itio
n
s
Cen
tral
h
eatin
g
,
c
o
o
lin
g
an
d
lig
h
tin
g
.
A
m
p
le
roo
m
f
o
r
seatin
g
(very
go
o
d
)
No
h
eatin
g
/co
o
lin
g
/lig
h
ts;
in
p
ri
m
ary
sch
o
o
l;
b
rough
t
o
il
la
m
p
f
ro
m
h
o
m
e
.
Ver
y
cr
o
wd
ed
sea
t
in
g
with f
lies (po
o
r)
.
No
h
eatin
g
/co
o
lin
g
,
b
u
t
lig
h
ts
in
m
id
d
le
sch
o
o
l.
Very cr
o
w
d
ed
seatin
g
(less th
an
satisf
acto
ry
)
*
*
Distan
ce to Sch
o
o
l
~1
/2
k
m
(walked
ever
y
da
y
)
1
–
2
k
m
(
walk
e
d
ev
ery
d
ay
(pri
m
a
r
y
sch
o
o
l)
~7
k
m
(lived
in
m
id
d
le
sch
o
o
l
d
u
r
in
g
th
e wee
k
,
rod
e bicycle
ho
m
e
ever
y
weeken
d
)
*
*
Teac
h
in
g
M
eth
o
d
Used
Teac
h
er
-
Stu
d
en
t
Participatio
n
recitati
o
n
an
d
in
d
iv
id
u
al;
all
stu
d
en
t
s
requ
ir
ed
to
sp
eak,
read,
an
d
write
in
p
r
in
t
an
d
cursiv
e
Teac
h
er
L
ectu
re
(
Eng
lish
)
recitation
b
y
v
o
lu
n
teer
o
r
teac
h
er
-
selected
(no
t
all
were
requ
ired)
.
Al
l
Stu
d
en
ts
requ
ired
to
read and
wr
it
e,
o
n
l
y
*
*
Nativ
e
an
d
*
S
econ
d
Lang
u
ag
e
Res
o
u
rces
W
h
ile
Atten
d
in
g
Pu
b
lic
Sch
o
o
l
Textb
o
o
k
an
d
Printed
Read
in
g
Book
s
(Pr
o
f
ess
io
n
al
W
eekl
y
p
eriod
icals
in
Pri
m
ar
y
S
ch
o
o
l,
acade
m
ic
tex
tb
o
o
k
s
in
m
id
d
le
an
d
h
ig
h
schoo
l
(E
n
g
lish
)
.
Rad
io
,
p
h
o
n
o
g
raph
,
telev
isio
n
,
b
o
o
k
s,
an
d
m
o
v
ies
(E
n
g
lish
,
o
n
ly
)
Textb
o
o
k
an
d
Dictio
n
ary
,
o
n
ly
(Fr
en
ch
an
d
Ger
m
an
)
Textb
o
o
k
,
b
o
o
k
s,
readers,
an
d
ra
d
io
(Ch
in
ese)
Textb
o
o
k
an
d
Dictio
n
a
ry
,
o
n
ly
(
Eng
lish
)
*
*
Acade
m
ic Abilit
y
Low
(strug
g
led
–
m
u
ch
ef
f
o
rt)
th
rough
o
u
t
K
–
1
2
an
d
in
to
f
irst two y
ea
rs of
colleg
e
Ab
o
v
e Average (n
o
t
m
u
ch
ef
f
o
rt)
*
*
Hig
h
est Ach
iev
i
n
g
Su
b
jects
Mat
h
e
m
a
tics an
d
Draftin
g
Eng
lish
,
Ch
in
ese, and
Geog
raph
y
*
*
Fo
reign
Lang
u
a
g
es
Lear
n
ed
An
d
Used
French
in
p
ri
m
ar
y
sch
o
o
l
Ger
m
an
in
h
ig
h
schoo
l,
b
asic
Gree
k
,
Sp
an
ish
,
Heb
rew,
Eg
y
p
tian
Arabic,
Thai
,
an
d
Mand
arin Ch
in
ese
Eng
lish
*
Desire
to
learn
an
d
acqu
ire
th
e
seco
n
d
lang
u
ag
e
Alway
s
ver
y
m
o
tiv
ated
Alway
s
ver
y
m
o
tiv
ated
*
Reas
o
n
s
for
Co
n
tin
u
in
g
to
Lear
n
an
d
Acqu
ire
Seco
n
d
L
an
g
u
ag
e(s)
To
co
m
m
u
n
icate
m
o
re
in
d
ep
en
d
en
tl
y
,
lif
elo
n
g
learning
an
d
to co
m
m
u
n
icat
e with
m
y
wif
e an
d
her fa
m
il
y
To
b
road
en
m
y
h
o
rizon
s,
co
m
m
u
n
i
c
ate
with
m
y
h
u
sb
an
d
,
an
d
lif
elo
n
g
learni
n
g
*
*
Ag
e E
n
tered
W
o
rkf
o
rce
1
3
(
p
art
-
ti
m
e);
1
8
(f
u
ll
-
ti
m
e)
1
9
(
f
u
ll
-
ti
m
e)
*
*
Hig
h
er
Edu
catio
n
Achiev
ed
Co
n
tin
u
ed
t
o
co
lleg
e
at
1
7
;
co
m
p
let
ed
two
AS
(19
8
7
,
1
9
9
1
)
BS
(20
0
1
),
ME
d
(20
0
4
),
a
n
d
Ph
.D
(20
0
9
)
d
eg
rees.
No
f
o
r
m
al hig
h
er
e
d
u
catio
n
*
*
Acade
m
ic Abilit
y
in Co
lleg
e
Excellen
t (
av
e
rage
strug
g
le)
N/A
*
*
Read
in
g
Desire
On
ly
literature
th
a
t
in
terests
m
e;
Interested
m
o
stly
in
th
e
p
ictu
res
rather
th
an
th
e
wo
rds
in
m
y
y
ea
rs;
stru
g
g
led
with
rea
d
in
g
an
d
I
was
a
l
way
s
a
slo
w
reade
r
u
n
til
ad
u
lt
h
o
o
d
.
Af
ter
searchin
g
for
f
in
d
in
g
way
s
to
m
a
k
e
in
cr
ease
m
y
readin
g
sp
eed
an
d
co
m
p
rehen
sio
n
,
I
h
av
e lear
n
ed
to ap
p
recia
te
readin
g
m
o
re
—
stro
n
g
des
ire
Stron
g
f
o
r
m
o
st
all
liter
atu
re
*
Lear
n
in
g
Strate
g
ies
Used
an
d
Fo
u
n
d
Ef
f
ectiv
e
to
Lea
r
n
an
d
Acq
u
ire
th
e
So
cial
Seco
n
d
Lang
u
ag
e
Mos
tly
i
-
Ph
o
n
e
ap
p
licatio
n
s,
su
ch
as
Pan
d
a,
Oral
Ch
in
ese
(bo
th
f
ree)
,
Lang
u
ag
e
Lea
rnin
g
So
f
tware,
an
d
Tr
an
slatio
n
Ap
p
s,Oral
Ch
in
ese
b
o
o
k
w/CD,
i
Tr
an
slate
,
an
d
Ch
in
ese Dictio
n
ary
Mos
tly
i
-
Ph
o
n
e
ap
p
s
su
ch
as
Baid
u
Tra
n
slate,
On
lin
e
Media
Ap
p
s
su
ch
as
Pu
b
lic
W
eCh
at,
i
-
Tr
an
slate,
an
d
o
th
ers.
Also
,
an
‘E
n
g
l
ish
f
o
r
Every
o
n
e’
g
ra
m
m
a
r
g
u
id
e,
Eng
lish
Lang
u
ag
e
Lear
n
in
g
Sof
tware
,
an
d
Diction
ar
y
*
Sen
se o
f
Achiev
em
e
n
t
Mos
tly
in
ternal,
b
u
t
d
esire
f
eedb
ack
f
rom
o
th
er
so
u
rces.
Exa
m
sco
res
m
ean
v
ery
littl
e
if
m
y
o
wn
sen
se
o
f
achiev
e
m
en
t is
n
o
t where it
sh
o
u
ld
be.
Mos
tly
in
ternal,
b
u
t
seek
reassu
rance
f
ro
m
o
th
ers
to
v
al
id
ate
m
y
o
wn
sen
se
o
f
achiev
e
m
en
t.
*
-
I
nd
ic
at
es si
m
il
ar ch
aracte
r
ist
ic
s
**
-
Indicat
es
di
ff
ere
nt c
har
act
erist
ic
s
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Cross
-
c
ultur
al
L2
le
arnin
g
ex
chan
ge: a
qu
alit
ative
exam
i
nati
on
of strate
gi
es, to
ols,
c
og
…
(
Rob
e
rt W.
Ell
iott
)
527
Tabl
e
2.
Mat
ri
x of
them
es and
s
ub
-
them
es from
q
ualit
at
ive inter
view
c
ompone
nts
Ov
erar
ch
in
g
T
h
e
m
es
Motiv
atio
n
Op
p
o
rtun
ity
Access to
Res
o
u
rces
The
m
es
an
d
Sub
-
T
h
e
m
es f
ro
m
R
esp
o
n
ses
to Interv
iew
I
te
m
s
(14
)
(Qualitat
iv
e)
1
.
Descripti
o
n
of
Ch
ild
h
o
o
d
E
x
p
erience
●
●
●
a.
La
ck
ed
hig
h
techn
o
lo
g
y
RX
b
.
Pla
y
ed
ga
m
es
with
oth
ers
RX
RX
c.
Liked
sin
g
in
g
,
d
an
cin
g
,
an
d
watchin
g
m
o
v
ies
RX
RX
2
.
Pri
m
ar
y
and
Mi
d
d
le Scho
o
l Stud
e
n
t E
x
p
erience whil
e Focu
sin
g
on
E
n
g
lish
L
earnin
g
a.
Beg
an
pri
m
a
ry
sch
o
o
l at
ag
e 5 o
r
6
y
ears
old
RX
b
.
Liked
m
ath
e
m
a
tics
R
c.
Mo
m
bo
u
g
h
t
m
ag
azin
es
RX
RX
d
.
Thre
e
y
ears of
m
id
d
le
sch
o
o
l E
n
g
lish
RX
RX
X
3
.
Co
m
m
o
n
alities
an
d
Dif
f
erences in
Ch
ild
h
o
o
d
E
x
p
eriences with
Class
m
a
tes
●
●
a.
F
ath
er’
s
wo
rk
–
n
o
t presen
t of
ten
RX
b
.
More
ou
tg
o
in
g
RX
c.
A
ccess to
m
o
re
b
o
o
k
s
RX
RX
4
.
W
h
at
Kin
d
of
Stud
en
t You
W
ere a
s Co
m
p
a
red to
Cla
ss
m
ates in
Ter
m
s
o
f
You
r
Acade
m
ic
Ability
●
●
●
a.
Much
cur
io
sity
RX
b
.
Liked
lea
rnin
g
RX
RX
RX
c.
Lear
n
in
g
ca
m
e
easy
RX
RX
5
.
Distan
ce fro
m
H
o
m
e to Pr
i
m
a
ry an
d
M
id
d
le Scho
o
l and
T
i
m
e it
T
o
o
k
to Tr
av
el
T
h
ere
●
●
a.
W
alk
ed
~1 K
M
to p
ri
m
a
ry sch
o
o
l
RX
RX
R
b
.
Ro
d
e bicycle
~
7
KM
and
lived
in
Midd
le Scho
o
l we
ek
ly
X
X
X
c.
W
alk
ed
~1K
M
to
M
id
d
le Scho
o
l daily
R
R
R
6
.
Tho
u
g
h
ts an
d
E
x
p
eriences W
h
ile
Yo
u
W
er
e L
e
arnin
g
E
n
g
lish
in Midd
le Scho
o
l
●
●
●
a.
On
l
y
readin
g
and
wr
itin
g
,
b
u
t want
ed
m
o
re
X
X
b
.
Read
in
g
,
writin
g
,
an
d
sp
eaki
n
g
R
R
c.
Li
m
it
ed
r
eso
u
rc
es an
d
techn
o
lo
g
y
RX
7
.
Describe
Yo
u
r
Hig
h
Scho
o
l E
x
p
erience
●
●
●
a.
Three
y
ea
rs
X
X
b.
Fo
u
r
y
ea
rs
R
R
c.
Lived
at
sch
o
o
l
X
8
.
Describe
Yo
u
r
Lif
e Aft
er
Hig
h
Sc
h
o
o
l Gr
ad
u
atio
n
●
●
●
a.
Beg
an
work
r
ig
h
t af
ter
h
ig
h
sch
o
o
l
RX
RX
b.
Do
n
’t
wan
t to sta
y
in
the o
f
f
ice
X
X
c.
W
an
t to lea
rn seco
n
d
lang
u
ag
e f
o
r
lif
e
X
X
X
9
.
Describe
Yo
u
r
Tho
u
g
h
ts an
d
Asp
i
ration
s f
o
r
W
an
tin
g
to Res
u
m
e L
earn
in
g
E
n
g
lish
●
●
●
a.
W
an
t to u
n
d
erstand
oth
ers
RX
b.
Lif
e drea
m
RX
RX
c.
Mus
t f
o
r
co
m
m
u
n
i
catin
g
with sp
o
u
se
RX
RX
1
0
.
State
W
h
at Yo
u
Used
to Help
Yo
u
Resu
m
e
y
o
u
r
La
n
g
u
ag
e L
earnin
g
●
●
●
a.
Variou
s b
o
o
k
s
X
X
X
b.
Tr
an
slatio
n
and
la
n
g
u
ag
e phon
e app
s
RX
RX
c.
W
eCh
at t
rans
late f
u
n
ctio
n
RX
RX
1
1
.
Describe th
e C
h
allen
g
es Yo
u
Faced W
h
ile
Lear
n
in
g
You
r
Seco
n
d
L
an
g
u
ag
e
●
●
●
a.
No
t in sch
o
o
l
RX
RX
b.
Ti
m
e
m
an
ag
e
m
en
t
and
availab
ility
RX
RX
c.
Ap
p
s n
o
t accurate
RX
1
2
.
State
an
d
Exp
l
ain
th
e
Level
o
f
Se
co
n
d
Languag
e
Yo
u
Plan
n
ed
to
Ach
i
ev
e,
Ho
w
Yo
u
W
ill
Kn
o
w
W
h
en
You
Have
Ach
iev
ed
I
t,
an
d
H
o
w L
o
n
g
You
T
h
in
k
I
t W
ill
T
ak
e
to
Do
I
t
●
●
a.
Satisf
acto
ry
level
f
o
r
liv
in
g
ind
ep
en
d
en
tly
R
b.
W
ill kn
o
w in
m
y
se
lf
RX
c.
More than
three
m
o
re
y
e
ars
RX
RX
1
3
.
Reas
o
n
s f
o
r
Contin
u
in
g
to Acq
u
ire
a Se
co
n
d
L
an
g
u
ag
e
●
●
●
a.
I
m
p
o
rtant lan
g
u
ag
e
RX
b.
Makes
m
e
pract
ice
m
o
re
RX
c.
Lov
e lear
n
in
g
lang
u
ag
e
RX
RX
RX
1
4
.
Prov
id
e Any
a
n
d
All
Su
g
g
estio
n
s
You
Have Fo
r
Ot
h
er
L2 L
earners
of
All
Ag
es
●
●
●
a.
Listen
and
sp
eak m
o
re
RX
RX
b.
Ask
y
o
u
rself
why
y
o
u
want to
lea
rn t
h
e lang
u
ag
e
RX
c.
Do
n
’t
sp
en
d
a
lo
t of
m
o
n
e
y
f
o
r
o
th
ers
to
teach y
o
u
RX
d.
Keep p
racticing
wi
th
o
th
ers or a
lo
n
e e
v
ery
da
y
RX
RX
e.
Do
n
’t
g
iv
e up
!
RX
Note:
Ad
a
pted
from
p
rior rese
arch co
nducte
d by Ell
iott
and
Oliver
[25
]
.
The
“
.
”
in
dicat
es
a
them
e
,
an
d
the
“
R
”
(R
obert)
an
d
“
X
”
(X
ia
olei)
in
dic
at
e
a
sub
-
them
e
that
inte
rsects
with eac
h ov
e
r
arch
i
ng them
e, as a
pp
li
cable.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
3
,
Sept
e
m
ber
2019
:
5
1
9
-
5
3
0
528
As
we
em
bar
ke
d
on
t
his
j
our
ney
of
disco
ve
ry,
we
co
uldn
’
t
help
but
rec
ognize
fu
t
ur
e
oppo
rtu
niti
es
that
exist
fo
r
both
resea
rc
her
s
and
pract
it
ione
rs.
Wh
il
e
m
uch
has
been
ac
com
plished
,
w
e
are
adm
i
tt
edl
y
sti
l
l
in
the
youthf
ul
sta
ges
of
f
ully
un
de
rstan
din
g
L
2
le
arn
i
ng
in
interc
ultu
ral
relat
ion
s
hip
s
in
a
con
ti
nual
ly
changin
g
e
nv
ir
on
m
ent.
Fu
tu
r
e
stud
ie
s
that
m
ov
e
fu
rth
er
a
way
from
the
tradit
io
nal
cl
assroom
setting
s
to
the
non
-
tradit
io
nal
hom
e
and
w
ork
place
e
nv
ir
onm
ents
are
ce
rtai
nly
be
nef
ic
ia
l
wh
il
e
co
ntinu
i
ng
to
l
ook
m
or
e
deep
ly
at
wh
a
t
m
otivate
s
peo
ple
to
le
ar
n
and
acq
uire
a
fo
rei
gn
la
ng
uag
e
a
nd
how
to
ta
p
into
tho
s
e
m
ot
ivati
on
al
a
sp
ect
s
i
n
a
du
lt
L2
le
a
rn
e
rs.
C
ertai
nly,
ha
vi
ng
the
app
a
re
nt
need
a
nd
de
sir
e
are
wh
at
m
otivate
d
Rob
e
rt
an
d
Xi
aolei
to
c
on
ti
nue
th
rou
gh
the
ir
jour
ney,
bu
t
this
m
otivati
on
do
es
not
e
xist
in
al
l
interc
ultur
al
couples.
F
or
pract
it
ion
ers,
c
onti
nu
i
ng
to
e
xpand
thei
r
know
le
dg
e
ba
se
an
d
eng
a
ging
oth
e
rs
t
o
ex
plore
de
eply
their
ow
n
m
oti
vations
f
or
L
2
le
arn
in
g
a
nd
a
cqu
isi
ti
on
will
li
kely
resu
lt
no
t
on
ly
in
m
axim
iz
ing
their
te
achin
g
and
le
a
rn
i
ng
effor
ts,
but
w
il
l
wu
it
e
po
ss
ibly
rev
eal
to
the
L2
le
ar
ne
rs
ot
her
im
po
rta
nt
aspects
about
them
sel
ves
and their i
nter
c
ultur
al
relat
ion
s
hi
p.
Her
e
are
a
f
e
w of w
hat
wer
e
f
ound to
b
e
the
m
os
t pr
om
inent r
evelat
io
ns
from
this stud
y:
a.
Person
al
fa
c
tors that
pr
om
o
ted/inhi
bited
lan
guag
e
learn
ing
The
le
arn
i
ng
env
i
ronm
ent,
m
ot
ivati
on
,
a
va
il
abili
ty
of
re
so
urces
,
achie
vem
ent
le
vel
(grad
e
s
an
d
exam
scor
es),
intrinsic
nee
d
to
acqu
i
re
the
la
ng
ua
ge,
a
nd
sense
of
acc
om
pl
ishm
ent
se
e
m
to
be
i
m
p
or
ta
nt
per
s
onal
facto
r
s
that
determ
ine
the
s
uccess
i
n
L
2
le
ar
ning
and
acq
uisit
ion.
Mor
e
im
po
rtantl
y
was
the
ne
ed
t
o
be
a
war
e
of
an
d
unde
rst
and
w
hat
se
c
ond
la
ngua
ge
the
or
ist
s
a
nd
researc
he
rs
ha
ve
fou
nd
in
t
heir
relat
ed
stu
dies.
b.
Le
arnin
g
s
trateg
ie
s
and
tool
s t
h
at worke
d
w
el
l
Fr
ee
public
WeChat,
TE
D
vid
eo
s,
“E
ngli
sh
for
E
ver
y
on
e”
gr
am
m
ar
book,
unstr
uctured
ti
m
e
blo
ck
s,
sel
f
-
paced
a
dd
ing
fle
xib
il
it
y,
and
bein
g
c
ha
ll
eng
ed
t
o
tra
nsl
at
e
and
inter
pr
et
f
or
Ro
bert
and
oth
e
rs
se
e
m
to
play
a
vital
ro
le
in
Xiaolei
’s
L2
le
arn
in
g
prof
ic
ie
ncy
as
sh
e
identifie
d
these
durin
g
her
re
flect
i
on
of
he
r
la
nguag
e
ac
qu
i
sit
ion
progress
.
c.
Le
arnin
g
s
trategies
and
tool
s t
h
at d
id
not
w
ork
w
el
l
Ti
m
e
m
anag
em
ent
-
a
busy
li
fe,
try
in
g
to
fi
nd
ti
m
e
to
le
a
rn
a
nd
pract
ic
e;
la
ck
of
E
ng
li
sh
-
s
peak
i
ng
env
i
ronm
ent;
rar
e
sit
uatio
ns
conve
rsing
with
foreig
ner
s
in
En
gli
sh
sp
ea
ki
ng
e
nvir
on
m
ent;
an
d
t
he
la
c
k
of
structu
re
d
en
vi
ronm
ent
fo
r
le
arn
i
ng
c
reated
the
need
for
Xiaolei
to
s
tructu
re
he
r
ti
m
e.
Likewise,
wit
h
Rob
e
rt’s
busy
li
fe
as
a
prof
e
s
so
r
an
d
resea
rc
her,
he
to
o
nee
ded
to
set
tim
e
an
d
place
pri
ori
ti
es
for
c
on
ti
nu
i
ng
to
acqu
i
re
the
Chinese
la
ngua
ge.
Co
ntra
ry
t
o
Xiaolei
’s
ta
r
get
la
nguag
e
e
nv
i
ronm
ent,
R
ob
e
rt
co
ntinu
e
s
to
ta
ke
adv
a
ntage
of
oppo
rtu
niti
es
to
engage
i
n
c
onver
sat
io
n
with
ot
he
rs
us
in
g
th
e
Chinese
la
nguag
e
-
neig
hborh
oo
d
childre
n
a
nd
a
du
lt
s,
m
aking
purc
hases
at
l
oc
al
stores
a
nd
gas
sta
ti
ons,
c
onve
rsing
with
stud
e
nts,
a
nd
the
li
ke
al
l serv
e t
o hel
p reinf
orce a
nd i
m
pr
ove
his Puto
nghua.
d.
Factors
t
h
at
matter m
ost
Moti
vation
-
T
he
intrinsic
nee
d
is
to
acq
uir
e
the
ne
w
la
ngua
ge
for
inc
r
eased
underst
and
i
ng
a
nd
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
betwee
n
R
obert,
Xia
olei,
a
nd
oth
e
rs.
E
sp
e
ci
al
ly
in
li
gh
t
of
sit
uations
th
at
arise
w
he
re
certai
n
words
get
in
t
he
way
of
w
ha
t
woul
d
oth
e
r
wise
be
per
cei
ved
a
nd
un
derst
ood
a
s
cl
ear
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
,
t
hese
sp
eci
fic
s
poke
n
words
ca
rr
y
m
uch
weig
ht
i
n
the
tra
ns
fe
re
nce
of
im
po
rtant
m
eaning
.
More
sp
eci
fical
ly
,
it
is
of
te
n
that
the
Chinese
tra
ns
l
at
ion
of
sp
eci
fi
c
word
s
ca
rr
ie
s
enough
diff
e
r
ence
in
cultu
ra
l
m
eaning
that
m
akes
unde
rstan
ding
the
cultural
con
te
xt
of
th
e
wo
r
ds
crit
i
cal
in
co
m
m
un
ic
at
in
g
cl
early
in
the
direct
ness
of comm
un
ic
at
ion
.
Ti
m
e
and
opport
un
it
y
-
T
he
inh
e
re
ntly
bu
sy
so
ci
al
li
festyl
es
and
the
pe
r
cepti
on
of
tim
e
and
sp
ace
i
n
the
m
ind
s
of
th
e
Chine
se
peop
le
m
ake
tim
e
a
prem
iu
m
wh
e
n
try
in
g
to
m
ain
ta
in
a
healt
hy
relat
ionshi
p.
T
his
is
especial
ly
true
in
le
arn
i
ng
t
o
say
“No
”
t
o
lun
c
h
a
nd
dinn
er
in
vitat
ion
s,
and
oth
e
r
act
iv
it
ie
s
in
exch
a
nge
f
or
le
arn
in
g
tim
e
i
n
a
so
ci
et
y
that
places
a
dem
and
for
so
ci
al
gathe
rin
gs
an
i
m
po
rtant
inter
wove
n
pa
rt
of
daily
li
vin
g
a
nd c
rea
te
s m
ajo
r
ch
al
le
ng
e
s in
m
ai
nt
ai
nin
g p
rio
riti
es a
nd sett
in
g
as
ide s
uffici
ent ti
m
e fo
r
lear
ning.
The
e
nviro
nme
nt
-
S
pecifica
ll
y
with
re
sp
ec
t
to
ad
ult
le
arn
i
ng,
the
le
a
rn
i
ng
e
nvir
onm
ent
is
le
s
s
structu
re
d,
a
nd
thu
s
require
s
m
or
e
sel
f
-
disci
pline
f
or
L2
le
arn
e
rs
to
ac
hie
ve
their
la
ngua
ge
le
ar
ning
goal
s.
W
it
h
Ro
ber
t’
s
and
Xiaolei
’s
busy
sche
du
le
s
,
m
uch
was
done
on
their
own
tim
e,
m
os
t
ly
at
nig
ht
in
bed
be
fore
go
i
ng to sl
eep.
e.
Te
chno
l
ogy
:
it
s successes
an
d lim
ita
tion
s
Phon
e
te
c
hnol
og
y
in
the
ti
m
es
they
li
ve
are
of
utm
os
t
i
mp
ort
ance
.
Wh
il
e
com
pu
te
r
ap
plica
ti
on
s
a
r
e
well
an
d
good
,
m
ob
il
e
te
chnolo
gy
m
akes
acce
ss
to
le
a
rn
i
ng
res
ources
m
or
e
acce
ssible
w
hen
on
-
de
m
and
acce
ss
is
essen
ti
al
.
Ho
we
ver,
it
is
fo
und
that
this
i
m
pr
ovin
g
te
chnolo
gy
ha
s
the
stron
g
po
te
ntial
to
m
ake
th
e
m
la
zy
in
their la
ngua
ge
ac
qu
isi
ti
on
e
ffor
ts
a
nd
thus inc
reasin
gly de
pende
nt
on this tec
hnol
og
y.
f.
The ke
y
t
o suc
cess and
gau
ging
progress
The
sin
gle
key
to
su
ccee
ding
in
la
nguag
e
ac
qu
isi
ti
on
is
to
first
know
an
d
unde
rstan
d
the
factor
s
an
d
issues
in
volve
d
with
seco
nd
la
nguag
e
a
cq
ui
sit
ion
;
it
’s
dif
fic
ult,
ta
kes
m
uch
tim
e,
and
re
qu
i
res
pe
rsiste
nce
to
ta
il
or
the
rig
ht
com
bin
at
ion
of strate
gies a
nd
resou
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