Intern
ati
o
n
a
l
Jo
urn
a
l
o
f
E
v
al
ua
ti
o
n
and
Rese
arch in
Education (I
JE
RE)
V
o
l.5
,
No
.1
, Mar
c
h20
16
, pp
.
7
6
~
8
1
I
S
SN
: 225
2-8
8
2
2
76
Jo
urn
a
l
h
o
me
pa
ge
: h
ttp
://iaesjo
u
r
na
l.com/
o
n
lin
e/ind
e
x.ph
p
/
IJERE
The Potential Impact of Online/
Distance Education for Students
with Disabilities in Higher Education
Ma
tt
hew
J
.
E
r
ickson
1
, Ka
ren
H
.
La
rwin
2
1
Department of Special
Edu
c
atio
n,
Slippery
Rock University
, US
A
2
Educational Fo
undation
,
Res
ear
ch,
&
Lead
er
ship, Youngstown
State University
,
USA
Article Info
A
B
STRAC
T
Article histo
r
y:
Received
Ja
n 31, 2016
Rev
i
sed
Feb
20
, 20
16
Accepted
Feb 28, 2016
The curr
ent
investigation sought
to unde
rstand if online and
distance
cours
e
offerings were
providing a needed brid
g
e
to
a post-secondar
y
degree for
students with
di
sabilit
ies. Th
e r
e
sults of
this inv
e
stigat
ion suggest that
th
er
e
is
an abs
e
nc
e o
f
em
pirica
l res
e
arch
on th
is top
i
c in
the ex
istin
g published
res
earch
. Res
u
l
t
s
pres
ented in
cl
ude
findings fro
m the K-12 data examining
this impact, and
the results from federa
l inv
e
stig
ations on th
e pr
eval
ence
of
individua
ls with
disabili
ties
at
te
n
d
ing post-second
ar
y
institutions.
Keyword:
Distance E
d
uc
ation
Higher Educati
o
n
Meta-An
a
lysis
On
lin
e Ed
u
cati
o
n
Special E
ducat
ion
Copyright ©
201
6 Institut
e
o
f
Ad
vanced
Engin
eer
ing and S
c
i
e
nce.
All rights re
se
rve
d
.
Co
rresp
ond
i
ng
Autho
r
:
Kare
n H.
Lar
w
in,
Ed
ucat
i
onal
Fo
un
dat
i
o
ns,
R
e
s
earch
, &
Lea
d
e
r
shi
p
,
Y
oun
g
s
to
wn
State U
n
iv
er
sity,
USA
Em
a
il: k
h
l
arwi
n
@
ysu
.
ed
u
1.
INTRODUCTION
Tod
a
y, 98
p
e
rcen
t of pu
b
lic p
o
s
tsecon
d
a
ry in
s
titu
tio
n
s
repo
rt th
ey
h
a
v
e
enro
lled
stu
d
e
n
t
s wit
h
d
i
sab
ilities co
m
p
ared
to
o
n
l
y
3
p
e
rcen
t in
19
78
. Most o
f
th
ese co
lleg
e
s an
d
u
n
i
v
e
rsities p
r
ov
id
e so
m
e
l
e
v
e
l of
serv
ices, sup
ports an
d
acco
m
m
o
d
a
tio
n
s
[1
].
Th
e nu
m
b
er
o
f
stu
d
e
n
t
s with
learn
i
ng
d
i
sab
ilities (LD) atten
d
i
ng
co
lleg
e
s and
un
iv
ersities h
a
s in
creased
as a resu
lt of th
e
efforts o
f
p
o
s
tseco
n
d
a
ry in
stitu
tio
n
s
to
prov
ide
m
o
re
su
ppo
rt, serv
ices, an
d
tran
sitio
n
p
l
an
n
i
n
g
[2
]. Zalazn
ic
k
[3
] sug
g
e
sts th
at th
e stan
d
a
rd
fo
r in
stitu
ti
o
n
s
to
ensure stude
n
ts with disabilities have
access to the sa
m
e
m
a
terials
and in
teractions a
s
their peers c
a
n be
pr
o
v
i
d
e
d
vi
a a
di
gi
t
a
l
pl
at
fo
r
m
t
o
pr
ovi
de t
h
e s
p
eci
al
l
y
desi
gne
d i
n
st
ruct
i
on t
h
ey
desi
re
. “O
nl
i
n
e c
o
u
r
ses an
d
blended c
o
urse
s (com
bining online a
n
d fac
e
-to-face)
ha
ve
been
use
d
fo
r
m
o
re than a
decade” in e
duc
ation
[4]
.
As t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
gy
i
s
de
vel
ope
d
t
o
e
n
han
ce t
h
e l
e
a
r
ni
n
g
e
x
peri
ence
f
o
r
st
u
d
e
n
t
s
, sc
ho
ol
s a
r
e c
o
nt
i
nual
l
y
expl
ori
ng st
rat
e
gi
es t
o
i
m
pl
em
ent
new l
ear
ni
n
g
t
o
ol
s. T
h
ese t
echn
o
l
o
gi
cal
adva
ncem
ent
s
ha
ve p
r
ovi
ded t
h
e
o
ppo
rt
u
n
ity for asyn
chron
i
ci
ty to
tran
sitio
n
fro
m
th
e n
o
r
m fo
r con
t
ent d
e
liv
ery in
o
n
lin
e co
urses, n
o
w,
co
m
b
in
ed
with so
m
e
syn
c
hron
ou
s too
l
s, su
ch
as in
st
a
n
t m
e
ssagin
g
so
ftw
a
re f
o
r
feed
ba
ck
or
q
u
estio
n
s
, th
e
virtual class
r
oom
m
o
re closely
m
i
mics the expe
rien
ce
of
fa
ce-to-face clas
sroo
m
interactio
n [4],[5].
Distan
ce ed
u
c
atio
n
co
urses
were i
n
itially
d
e
sign
ed
to
sup
port edu
cation
a
l op
portun
ities to
stud
en
ts
who we
re li
m
i
ted due to ge
ogra
phic location or lifes
tyle t
o
attend a fac
e
-to-f
ace educ
ational setting. The
av
ailab
ility o
f
o
n
lin
e learn
i
n
g
too
l
s h
a
s
p
r
ov
id
ed
flex
i
b
ility an
d
th
e o
p
p
o
rtun
ity t
o
co
m
p
lete c
o
urse
requirem
ents from
nearly
an
y
l
o
cat
i
on.
Ac
cor
d
i
n
g t
o
B
u
r
t
on a
n
d
Gol
d
s
m
ith [6](p.3),
“the inc
r
ease
d
ease of
co
mm
u
n
i
catio
n
between
p
a
rticip
an
ts,
g
r
eater equ
a
lity o
f
p
a
rticip
atio
n
in
t
h
e d
i
scu
ssion
, anon
ymit
y
o
f
p
a
rticip
an
ts,
red
u
c
tion in
bias, ab
ility to
recru
it
d
i
v
e
rse pop
u
l
ation
,
and
t
h
e ab
ility to
add
r
ess m
o
re
cont
roversial topics” are s
o
me of the adva
ntages to di
stance education. J
o
hns
o
n, Zasca
v
age a
nd
Gerber [7]
i
ndi
cat
e t
h
at
g
r
aduat
i
o
n i
s
t
h
e
ul
t
i
m
a
t
e
goal
of e
v
ery
c
o
l
l
e
g
e
st
ude
nt
, t
h
ei
r
pare
nt
s, a
nd t
e
achers
.
G
r
ad
e poi
nt
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
The Pote
ntial
Impa
ct
of Online/Distance
E
d
ucation for
St
udents
with
Disabilities .... (M
atthew J. Ericks
on)
77
avera
g
es (GPA) act as a
meas
uri
ng stick for
short-term
su
ccess th
at lead
s to
g
r
adu
a
tio
n
wh
ich
is th
e u
lti
m
a
te
g
o
a
l i
n
th
e co
lleg
e
p
r
o
cess fo
r all stu
d
e
n
t
s,
i
n
clu
d
i
ng
t
h
ose with
d
i
sab
ilities.
1.
1.
Choice
Exp
e
n
s
es in
cu
rred
b
y
b
o
t
h
co
l
l
eg
es and
un
iversities, wh
ich
u
lti
m
a
tel
y
i
m
p
act th
e stud
en
t
in
th
e
form
of
fees a
n
d o
p
p
o
r
t
u
ni
t
y
cost
s
m
a
ke t
h
e est
a
bl
i
s
hm
ent
of
di
st
ance ed
ucat
i
o
n
m
odel
s
a fi
nanci
a
l
ri
s
k
.
“
S
t
ude
nt
s
wou
l
d b
e
attracted
to
less burd
e
n
s
o
m
e o
p
tio
n
s
if i
n
stitu
tio
n
s
were to
offer m
o
re flex
ib
le app
r
o
a
ch
es to stud
y
t
h
at
ha
ve a l
o
wer c
o
st
of
p
r
o
v
i
s
i
o
n a
nd
hence
l
o
wer
f
ees” [
8
]
(
p
.
5
)
.
The
p
u
rc
hase
, de
vel
o
pm
ent
,
an
d
im
pl
em
ent
a
t
i
o
n
of
o
n
l
i
n
e
l
earni
ng
t
o
ol
s
w
h
i
c
h
i
n
cl
u
d
e,
a l
earni
ng
m
a
nagem
e
nt
sy
st
em
(LM
S
)
,
as
wel
l
a
s
cont
e
n
t
st
ora
g
e and ret
r
i
e
v
a
l
sy
st
em
s, em
ai
l co
m
m
uni
cat
i
on, d
o
cu
m
e
nt
dro
p
b
o
x
es, g
r
a
d
e i
nqui
ri
es,
d
i
scu
ssi
on
bo
ars, learn
i
ng
obj
ects and
con
t
en
t, as
well as o
n
lin
e testing
cap
ab
ilities
m
a
k
e
th
e app
e
aran
ce of
an
on
lin
e p
r
og
ram
in
ti
mid
a
t
i
n
g
to
con
s
truct. Howev
e
r, these features
are bot
h attractive and wel
c
om
ed
changes t
o
today’s students
who em
br
ace t
h
e
opportunity to work
with t
echnology to c
r
eate a fle
x
ible
m
ode
of del
i
very
. T
h
e i
n
t
r
o
duct
i
o
n
and i
m
pl
em
entat
i
on o
f
onl
i
n
e com
pone
nt
s i
n
t
o
cou
r
se del
i
v
ery
bene
fi
t
s
bo
t
h
t
h
e
scho
o
l
s, b
ecause of
redu
ced
co
sts, and
th
e learn
e
r,
t
h
rou
g
h
g
r
eater flex
ib
ility an
d
co
nv
enien
ce [9
].
A carefu
l
exa
m
in
atio
n
of th
e av
ailab
l
e d
a
ta in
d
i
cates th
at stu
d
en
t with
d
i
sab
ilities are
ove
r
w
hel
m
i
ngl
y
at
t
e
ndi
n
g
2
-
y
ear p
ubl
i
c
sc
ho
ol
s [
1
0]
. Da
t
a
i
ndi
cat
es t
h
at
up
war
d
s t
o
49
% o
f
st
u
d
e
n
t
s
wi
t
h
disabilities are attending two-year in
stitutions,
whic
h according to the
NCES
re
port reflects “the fa
ct that
Vo
cation
a
l Reh
a
b
ilitatio
n
sup
port fo
r st
u
d
en
ts with
d
i
sab
ilities is frequ
en
tly orien
t
ed
toward
v
o
catio
n
a
l
train
i
ng
at less-th
an
-two-year in
stitu
tio
n
s
(p
2
6
). Th
is
also
reflects th
e
fact th
at th
ese typ
e
s o
f
i
n
stitu
tion
s
are
gene
rally available close
r
to hom
e
, than tra
d
i
tional fo
ur yea
r
institutions.
Howe
ver, without i
n
crease
d
a
ccess
to the
4 year i
n
stitution, m
a
ny indi
viduals
wi
th disa
b
ilities will face lim
i
t
e
d
ea
rni
n
g
pot
e
n
tial. That
fact alone
mak
e
s it i
m
p
e
rativ
e th
at th
e
on
lin
e/d
i
stan
ce
o
ppo
rt
u
n
ities at 4
-
year sch
o
o
l
s in
crease an
d
i
m
p
r
ov
e so
th
at th
e
disable
d
stude
n
ts truly do
ha
ve e
qual a
cces
s.
1.
2.
Stude
nt Ac
hievement
Positive
factors that incre
a
se
th
e
rate of success for
st
udents w
ith disabilities
in
postseconda
r
y
set
t
i
ngs i
n
cl
ud
e;
at
t
e
nda
nce a
t
a j
uni
or
o
r
c
o
m
m
uni
t
y
co
lleg
e
,
f
a
m
i
l
y
su
pp
or
t, a supp
or
tiv
e sem
i
n
a
r
cour
se for
incom
i
ng
students, participat
ion
in re
gula
r
academ
ics
wi
th colle
giate pe
ers [11]-[13]
.
Participation i
n
a two
year in
stitu
tio
n
su
ch
as a co
mm
u
n
ity
co
lleg
e
o
r
ju
n
i
or co
lleg
e
are
m
o
re lik
ely
t
o
p
r
ov
id
e link
s
with
co
mm
u
n
ity reso
urces, prov
ide written
po
licies o
n
techn
o
l
o
g
y
,
and
d
e
v
e
lo
p
m
en
tal o
r
re
m
e
d
i
al in
structio
n,
w
h
ereas fou
r
year po
stsecondary p
r
o
g
ram
s
may p
r
o
v
i
d
e
no
te tak
e
rs, course wo
rk
to
imp
r
ov
e stu
d
y
sk
ills, an
d
me
m
o
ry train
i
n
g
sk
ills [14
]
.
Green
b
e
liev
e
s th
at su
ppo
rtiv
e in
terv
en
tion
s
sh
ou
ld
b
e
g
i
n
with
th
e in
itial co
lleg
e
ex
p
e
rien
ce an
d th
at a fresh
man
sem
i
n
a
r p
r
og
ram
fo
r g
e
n
e
ral stu
d
e
n
t
s and stu
d
e
n
t
s
with
d
i
sab
ilities lea
d
s t
o
success
[12].
Anothe
r
key to succes
s for
c
o
llege
students
with disabilities
is
fam
ily support.
Inte
rvie
ws with
success
f
ul c
o
llege stude
n
ts by [13] show e
a
rly fam
i
ly
support, early identification a
n
d good
self-est
ee
m
as
key to t
h
eir c
o
m
p
etency.
A
stu
d
y
cond
ucted
b
y
Jo
hn
Rich
ar
dson
[15
]
an
alyzed
the role of bei
n
g disabled as a factor in the
attain
m
e
nt and expe
riences
of over
2,
3
00
d
i
st
ance-l
ear
ni
n
g
st
u
d
ent
s
a
w
a
r
de
d p
o
st
-
s
eco
nda
ry
de
gree
s i
n
t
h
e
Uni
t
e
d
Ki
n
g
d
o
m
.
R
i
chards
on
’s st
u
d
y
hi
g
h
l
i
ght
e
d
p
r
o
b
l
e
m
s
at
t
h
e col
l
e
g
i
at
e l
e
vel
rega
rdi
ng
di
scl
o
s
u
r
e
o
f
stu
d
e
n
t
d
i
sab
i
l
ities in
b
o
t
h
th
e Un
ited
Ki
n
gdo
m
an
d
th
e Un
ited
States. Th
e fi
n
d
i
ng
s sugg
est th
at th
e
attain
m
e
n
t
an
d
o
v
e
rall exp
e
ri
en
ce o
f
g
r
adu
a
tes wh
o
repo
rt
ed
d
i
sab
ilities t
h
at th
ey h
a
d
no
t p
r
ev
iou
s
ly declared
to
th
e
un
iv
ersity were similar to
tho
s
e
o
f
grad
u
a
tes withou
t
a d
i
sab
ility [1
5].
Sim
i
l
a
rl
y
,
a study
c
o
nd
uct
e
d
by
J
o
h
n
s
o
n
,
Zascava
g
e, a
n
d G
e
r
b
er
[
7
]
u
s
i
ng i
nde
pe
nde
nt
sam
p
l
e
s t
-
tests to com
p
a
r
e grade
poi
nt avera
g
es
earned
at th
e un
iversity o
f
stud
en
ts wh
o
attend
ed
ju
n
i
o
r
co
lleg
e
s
sho
w
e
d
t
h
ere
were
no si
gni
fi
cant
di
f
f
ere
n
ce
s i
n
t
h
e gra
d
e
poi
nt
avera
g
es
bet
w
ee
n st
u
d
e
n
t
s
w
ho
had at
t
e
nde
d
a jun
i
o
r
co
llege prior to admissio
n
to th
e un
iv
ersity
, howeve
r
t
h
e
pri
m
ary post-hi
g
h sc
hool
goal
for t
h
e
stude
nt, parent
al
expe
ctati
ons
, hi
gh sc
hool t
y
pe, a
n
nual
house
hol
d
inc
o
me, and
academ
ic pe
rform
a
nce
were
si
gni
fi
ca
nt
p
r
e
d
i
c
t
o
rs
o
f
part
i
c
i
p
at
i
on i
n
po
s
t
secon
d
ary
set
t
i
ngs
. R
u
ba
n,
M
c
C
o
ach,
M
c
Gui
r
e a
n
d
R
e
i
s
’
20
0
3
st
udy
[1
6]
al
so
su
gg
est
s
t
h
at
t
h
e
rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
p
s
bet
w
een
pe
rc
ei
ved
use
f
ul
ne
ss, r
o
ut
i
n
e m
e
m
o
ri
zat
i
on, an
d
GP
A
d
i
d
n
o
t
p
r
esen
t
d
r
am
atical
ly d
i
fferen
t
resu
lts b
e
tween
stud
en
ts with
learn
i
n
g
d
i
sab
ilities an
d
witho
u
t
learn
i
n
g
disabilities. Da
deppo’s
findings [17]
that explored t
h
e infl
uence t
h
at acad
em
ic and soci
al integration have on
the academ
ic s
u
ccess a
nd i
n
tent to pe
rsist of college
freshman and sophom
ores with le
arni
ng
disabilities are
co
nsisten
t
with p
r
ev
i
o
us research
wh
ich
h
a
s d
e
m
o
n
s
trated a p
o
s
itiv
e co
rrelatio
n
b
e
t
w
een
h
i
gh
schoo
l GPA
an
d co
llege GPA
with
u
n
sel
ected sam
p
les [18]-[21].
Th
e
first attem
p
t to
ex
am
in
e pred
iction
o
f
po
sts
econd
ary
ou
tco
m
es in
a n
a
tion
a
lly rep
r
esen
tativ
e
sam
p
l
e
was com
p
l
e
t
e
d by
Habe
r, M
azz
ot
t
i
,
M
u
st
i
a
n, R
o
we
, B
a
rt
hol
o
m
ew, Test
, a
n
d F
o
wl
er [
2
2]
.
Thei
r
m
e
t
a
-anal
y
si
s
of i
n
-sch
o
o
l
p
r
edi
c
t
o
rs o
f
p
o
s
t
s
econ
d
a
r
y
em
pl
oym
ent
,
educat
i
o
n, a
nd
i
nde
pen
d
e
n
t
l
i
vi
n
g
of
yo
u
t
h
w
ith
d
i
sab
ilities ex
a
m
i
n
es 35
sou
r
ces an
d
27
sam
p
l
e
s (N
=16
,
9
5
7
)
p
u
b
lish
e
d
from Jan
u
a
ry
o
f
1984
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:22
52-
882
2
IJER
E
V
o
l
.
5,
No
. 1,
M
a
rc
h2
01
6
:
7
6
–
8
1
78
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
M
a
y
o
f
20
1
0
. T
h
i
s
st
udy
e
x
pl
ore
d
i
n
-sc
h
oo
l
pre
d
i
c
t
o
rs t
o
po
st
-sc
h
o
o
l
o
u
t
c
om
es i
n
cl
udi
n
g
e
m
p
l
o
y
m
en
t, ed
u
cation
an
d in
d
e
p
e
nd
en
t liv
in
g
ou
tcomes u
s
in
g
g
e
n
d
e
r, ethn
icity, d
i
sab
ility
i
m
p
act
pre
d
i
c
t
i
o
n
,
st
u
d
ent
-
f
o
cu
sed
p
l
anni
n
g
, i
n
t
e
ra
gency
c
o
l
l
a
bo
r
a
t
i
on an
d pa
re
nt
i
n
v
o
l
v
em
ent
as
m
oderat
o
rs
. Thi
s
stu
d
y
prov
ides in
sig
h
t
in
to
t
h
e im
p
o
r
tan
c
e o
f
selectin
g
sp
ecific in
terven
tio
ns th
at fit th
e n
eed
s
of th
e
post
s
ec
o
nda
ry
out
c
o
m
e
s, po
p
u
l
a
t
i
ons
, a
n
d
s
e
t
t
i
ng c
h
aract
e
r
istics
with
d
i
ffering
rela
tio
nsh
i
p
s
with educatio
n
vers
us em
pl
oy
m
e
nt
.
In c
o
nt
rast
, F
e
l
d
m
a
n and
M
e
sserl
i
[2
3]
arg
u
e
that som
e
special education
procedures a
nd
en
v
i
ron
m
en
ts
in
th
e K-12
ed
u
cation
a
l settin
g
m
a
y
lead
to
failu
re in p
o
s
tseco
n
d
a
ry ed
u
catio
n. Sp
ecial
education
program
s
m
a
y fost
er de
pe
nden
ce
and inhibit a st
ude
nt’s self-ad
vocacy skills that
are necessa
ry
for
success i
n
a c
o
llegiate environm
ent.
Chia
ng et al. [11]
conducted a
back
ward
log
i
stic regression
an
alysis
whi
c
h s
u
g
g
est
s
t
h
at
t
h
e
pri
m
ary
post
-
hi
gh
sch
ool
g
o
al
f
o
r
t
h
e
st
ude
nt
,
pa
rent
al
expect
at
i
o
ns
, hi
gh
sch
o
o
l
t
y
pe
,
annual household inc
o
m
e
, and aca
de
m
i
c
p
e
rform
a
n
ce were sign
ifi
can
t p
r
ed
ictors o
f
p
a
rticip
atio
n
in
post
s
ec
o
nda
ry
educat
i
o
n.
A
back
wa
rd l
o
gi
st
i
c
regressi
on
anal
y
s
i
s
was use
d
f
o
r t
h
i
s
s
t
udy
t
h
at
f
o
u
n
d
t
h
e
pri
m
ary
post
-
h
i
gh
sch
o
o
l
g
o
a
l
fo
r t
h
e st
ud
ent
;
pa
rent
al
e
xpect
at
i
o
ns,
hi
gh
sc
ho
ol
t
y
p
e
, an
n
u
al
ho
us
eho
l
d
incom
e
, and ac
adem
ic performance we
re si
gni
ficant
pre
d
i
c
to
rs of p
a
rticip
atio
n
in
po
stseco
nd
ary
edu
c
atio
n
.
In
ligh
t
o
f
t
h
e mix
e
d
fi
n
d
i
ng
s
o
n
t
h
e limi
t
ed
ex
isting
research, it is difficu
lt to
d
r
aw clear-cu
t
co
n
c
l
u
sion
s abo
u
t
th
e im
p
act o
f
o
n
l
i
n
e/d
i
stan
ce in
stru
ction o
n
t
h
e ach
iev
e
men
t
o
f
stud
ents with
d
i
sab
ilities in
post
s
ec
o
nda
ry
set
t
i
ngs. A m
e
t
a
-anal
y
si
s of
t
h
ese st
udi
es
wo
ul
d
be an a
p
p
r
op
ri
at
e and
effect
i
v
e ap
p
r
oach t
o
syn
t
h
e
sizing
an
d
i
n
teg
r
ati
n
g
th
e con
f
lictin
g resu
lts fro
m
t
h
e ex
isting
quan
titativ
e research. Th
is app
r
o
a
ch
wo
ul
d
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
a gen
e
ral
m
easure
of
t
h
e i
m
pact
of
onl
i
n
e in
stru
ction
on
st
ud
en
t ac
hi
evem
ent
f
o
r st
ude
nt
s wi
t
h
d
i
sab
ilities th
at
m
i
g
h
t
o
t
h
e
rwise
b
e
o
b
s
cured b
y
t
h
e conflictin
g
resu
lts. It also
wo
u
l
d
b
e
b
e
n
e
ficial to
an
o
v
e
rall u
n
d
e
rstan
d
i
n
g
o
f
th
e im
p
act
o
f
o
n
l
i
n
e in
stru
ction
on
stu
d
e
n
t
s wit
h
d
i
sab
ilities b
y
in
v
e
stig
ate ho
w th
e
im
pact on student achievem
e
nt is affected
by grade level,
c
o
re
discipline a
r
ea, m
eas
urement type, and year of
th
e inv
e
stig
ation
.
2.
R
E
SEARC
H M
ETHOD
S
A m
e
ta-an
a
lysis is a m
e
th
od
o
l
o
g
i
cal ap
pro
ach in
wh
ich
d
a
ta fro
m
m
u
l
tip
le so
urces can
b
e
q
u
a
n
titativ
ely
syn
t
h
e
sized
in an
effort to
determin
e th
e o
v
e
rall effect of th
e p
h
e
n
o
m
en
a o
f
in
terest.
Glass,
M
c
Gaw,
&
S
m
i
t
h
, [2
4]
des
c
ri
be
d m
e
t
a
-anal
y
si
s as “
A
n
a
l
y
si
s of
anal
y
s
es”. T
h
e
p
r
o
pos
ed
p
u
r
p
o
se
o
f
t
h
e
cu
rren
t m
e
ta-an
a
lytic ap
p
licatio
n
is to
syn
t
h
e
size th
e
d
a
ta co
llected
from
m
u
lt
ip
le stu
d
i
es ex
am
in
i
n
g
t
h
e
im
pact of dis
t
ance education pa
rtic
ip
ation
b
y
stud
en
ts id
en
tified
as
“special education”.T
his a
n
alytic
ap
pro
ach m
a
k
e
s it po
ssib
l
e t
o
d
e
term
in
e th
e sign
ifican
ce
o
f
m
u
ltip
le v
a
riab
les ag
ai
n
s
t
an
o
u
t
co
m
e
v
a
riab
le,
specifically stude
nt ac
hieve
m
ent for t
h
e
current
investigation.
Glass
et
al. (1981) explains
that
a
m
e
ta-
an
alysis allo
ws fo
r stud
ies
with
sm
al
ler sam
p
le sizes to
b
e
co
m
b
in
ed
, th
u
s
,
p
r
od
u
c
i
ng a m
u
ch
larg
er sam
p
le
size. Th
is in turn will in
crease th
e statisti
cal po
wer and
reli
ab
ility o
f
th
e esti
m
a
tes [2
5
]
.
3.
R
E
SU
LTS AN
D ANA
LY
SIS
A thorough se
arch of a
v
ailable search engi
nes suc
h
as Goog
leScho
lar,
Acad
em
ic Search Co
m
p
lete
,
and EBSCO re
vealed t
h
at the
r
e we
re
no
empirical studies
that specificall
y
exam
ined the im
pact on the use
of
o
n
lin
e/
d
i
stan
ce classes for ind
i
v
i
du
als
with d
i
sab
ilitie
s wh
o are atten
d
i
n
g
a
p
o
st-secon
d
a
ry in
stitu
ti
o
n
.
A
num
ber of studies were found that exam
ined the im
pact
of onl
i
n
e/
di
s
t
ance educat
i
o
n o
n
st
ude
nt
s
wi
t
h
d
i
sab
ilities, and
th
ese resu
lts were rep
o
rted in
Larwin, Erick
s
on
, &
Given
[
26
]. Resu
lts fro
m
2
0
1
5
stu
d
y
indicate:
1)
Achi
e
v
em
ent
resul
t
s
f
o
r s
p
e
c
i
a
l
educat
i
o
n/
di
sabl
e
d
st
u
d
e
n
t
s
o
n
l
i
n
e
ver
s
us al
l
ot
he
rs
not
onl
i
n
e:
N
o
si
gni
fi
ca
nt
di
ff
erence
wi
t
h
a
gra
n
d m
ean overall effect siz
e
m
easure d
=
-
.
0
1
5
,
p
<.848
, a no
n-
sign
if
ican
t
negative
effect
accordi
n
g to C
ohe
n’s
[27]
2)
Achie
v
em
ent results
for s
p
ecial
educat
i
o
n/
di
sa
bl
ed
o
n
l
i
n
e ve
rs
us s
p
eci
al
educat
i
o
n
not
o
n
l
i
n
e:
Signi
ficantly highe
r for s
p
eci
al education
online. T
w
e
n
ty
-eight of the
54 effect sizes (51.8%) t
h
at we
re
u
s
ed
in
th
is st
u
d
y
were n
e
g
a
tiv
e wh
ich
imp
lies th
at
cont
rol
g
r
o
u
p
st
ud
ent
s
per
f
o
r
m
e
d bet
t
e
r, w
h
er
ea
s
th
irty-on
e
(48
.
1
%
) w
e
re
po
sitiv
e ind
i
catin
g stu
d
e
n
t
s in th
e t
r
eatm
e
n
t
g
r
oup p
e
rfo
r
m
e
d
b
e
t
t
er.
3)
Achie
v
em
ent for
special e
d
ucation/
disa
bled online
vers
us
non-s
p
ecial
ed
u
cation
on
line: Sig
n
i
fican
tly
h
i
gh
er
for non-sp
ecial edu
cat
io
n
stud
en
ts wh
o
are on
lin
e.
Resu
lts in
d
i
cat
ed
th
at stud
en
t
s
w
ith
d
i
sab
ilities
p
e
rform
sig
n
i
fican
tly b
e
tter i
n
on
lin
e/
distance learning classes than sim
ilar gr
o
ups
of s
p
eci
al
educat
i
o
n
stude
nts in tra
d
itional
face-t
o
-face inst
ruct
ion
on m
eas
ures of stude
n
t
achievem
e
nt (d = .497). This
su
gg
ests a large p
o
s
itiv
e im
p
act fo
r t
h
e u
s
e
o
f
o
n
lin
e/
d
i
stan
ce edu
cation
for stud
en
ts i
d
en
tified
as sp
ecial
ed
u
cation
or with
d
i
sab
ilities.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
The Pote
ntial
Impa
ct
of Online/Distance
E
d
ucation for
St
udents
with
Disabilities .... (M
atthew J. Ericks
on)
79
In
terestin
g
l
y, t
h
e av
ailab
l
e
data o
n
th
e num
b
e
r o
f
stud
en
ts with
d
i
sabilit
ies
in
h
i
g
h
e
r
ed
u
cation
indicates that there is a need for
the im
pacts observe
d in the K-12 are
n
a to happen in the post-s
econda
ry
arena
.
As
stated above,
data
accessed
from the NCES
i
n
dicates that the largest proport
i
on
of st
ude
nts
with
d
i
sab
ilities earn
i
ng
po
st-secon
d
a
ry d
e
g
r
ees, are atten
d
i
ng
2-
year in
stitu
tion
s
. As in
d
i
cated
in
Tab
l
e 1
,
t
h
ere is
a clear
d
i
fference b
e
tween
t
hos
e with d
i
sab
ilities an
d tho
s
e
with
ou
t
o
n
d
e
gree attain
m
e
n
t
.
Tab
l
e
1
.
Pro
por
tio
n of
D
e
gr
ee A
ttain
m
e
n
t
f
r
o
m
N
C
ES (201
5)
Institution Type
So
m
e
Post- Secondar
y
but No Degr
ee
LICENSE ASSOCIAT
E
BACHEL
OR
MAST
ER
DOCTORA
L
P
ublic, 4-
year
Disabled 30.
3
3.
3
4.
5
55.
3
5.
6
0.
9
Not Disabled
31.
0
2.
8
1.
1
61.
5
3.
5
0
P
r
ivat
e,
4-
year
Disabled 20.
6
2.
2
2.
9
63.
7
8.
8
1.
8
Not Disabled
21.
9
1.
6
3.
9
53.
1
15.
3
4.
1
P
ublic, 2-
year
Disabled 58.
5
12.
5
14.
2
13.
9
0.
8
0.
1
Not Disabled
61.
1
14.
2
10.
0
12.
6
2.
1
0
Othe
r insti
t
utions
Disabled 38.
7
39.
1
17.
3
4.
9
0.
1
0
Not Disabled
39.
8
43.
8
15.
5
1.
0
0
0
Add
itio
n
a
lly, t
h
e resu
lts of the NCES
report in
d
i
cate th
at
disab
l
ed
st
u
d
e
n
t
s attain
in
g
po
st-second
ary
d
e
grees are
ov
erwh
elmin
g
l
y th
o
s
e with ortho
p
e
d
i
c
d
i
sab
ilities.Th
ese
resu
lts sup
p
o
r
t th
e exp
a
n
s
io
n
of
accessibility for
disabled popula
tions via
online and
distan
ce education
opportunities.
4.
DIS
C
USSI
ON
The resul
t
s
of
t
h
e
cu
rre
nt
i
n
v
e
st
i
g
at
i
on
a
r
e conce
r
ni
n
g
.
It
is ev
id
en
t, aft
e
r a search of
th
e ex
isting
research
th
at th
ere is a n
e
ed
for research
exa
m
in
in
g
stud
en
ts with
d
i
sab
ilities
in
p
o
s
t-seco
nd
ary in
stitu
tio
ns,
and
ho
w t
h
e u
s
e of o
n
l
i
n
e an
d di
st
ance ed
u
cat
i
on i
s
im
pact
i
ng t
h
ei
r suc
cess and de
g
r
e
e
at
t
a
i
n
m
e
nt
.
Whi
l
e
Larwi
n
et al.[2
6
]
stron
g
l
y sug
g
e
sts th
at th
is typ
e
o
f
educatio
n
a
l op
tion
h
a
s
h
a
d
a
po
sitiv
e i
m
p
act o
n
th
e
success
of
di
sa
bl
ed a
nd s
p
eci
al
educat
i
o
n st
ude
nt
s i
n
K-
12
, i
t
can onl
y
be
surm
i
s
ed as t
o
whet
her t
h
e
s
e sam
e
l
e
vel
s
o
f
i
m
pact
are bei
n
g ex
peri
e
n
ced
by
l
i
ke st
u
d
e
n
t
s
in
th
e po
st-second
ary aren
a.
It
is h
ypo
th
esized
th
at
the im
pacts are the sam
e
.
An
exam
i
n
at
i
on
of
t
h
e
[1
0]
r
e
veal
s s
o
m
e
t
r
ou
bl
i
n
g
p
a
tters fro
m
th
e 20
00 d
a
ta.
First,
stud
en
ts with
d
i
sab
ilities are predo
m
in
ately
attain
in
g d
e
g
r
ees fro
m
2
-
year in
stitu
tion
s
. Th
is typ
e
o
f
d
e
gree can
limit th
e
earni
ng
pote
n
tial for these individuals.
Sec
o
ndly, accordi
ng to the
NCE
S
report,
disabled stude
nts attaining
post
-
sec
o
ndary
de
grees a
r
e
predom
inately thos
e with or
tho
p
e
d
i
c limitat
i
o
n
s
.
Wh
ile this d
a
ta is d
a
ted
,
it
she
d
s f
u
rt
her
l
i
ght
o
n
t
h
e
n
eed f
o
r resea
r
ch s
p
ecifically exam
ining
the im
pact of
online a
nd
dist
ance
ed
u
cation
in
ch
ang
i
ng
th
e tide for stud
en
ts acro
s
s all d
i
sab
ility g
r
ou
p
s
reg
a
rd
ing
th
eir
p
o
s
t
-
seco
nd
ary
d
e
gree
attain
m
e
n
t
.
In
ligh
t
o
f
federal m
a
n
d
a
tes in
clu
d
i
n
g
th
e
Sectio
n
50
4
of th
e Reh
a
b
ilitatio
n
Act of 197
3 and
the
Am
erican
s with
Disab
ilities
Act o
f
1
990
, t
h
ere are m
a
n
y
q
u
e
stion
s
as t
o
wh
y so
few
stu
d
e
n
t
s are limit
in
g
th
eir edu
cational o
p
p
o
rtun
ities to
two
year in
stitu
tio
n
s
wh
en
th
ey are en
su
red
eq
u
a
l access to
co
lleg
e
.
Equ
a
l
access for students that are identified as
disabled s
h
ould
be gra
n
ted far beyond
a
d
m
i
ssion
and
s
h
oul
d
be m
o
re
aware
of
what
resources a
r
e a
v
ailable to the
m
.
5.
CO
NCL
USI
O
N
Th
e curren
t
inv
e
stig
ation
revealed
a larg
e
g
a
p
in
t
h
e cu
rren
t literatu
re:
Ho
w is tod
a
y’s u
s
e of
t
echn
o
l
o
gy
i
n
hi
g
h
er e
ducat
i
on i
m
pact
i
n
g
th
e liv
es of stu
d
en
ts with
sp
ecial n
eed
s. It is ex
p
ected
th
at research
on t
h
is topic s
h
oul
d re
veal tha
t
technol
ogy
has the ability
to positively im
pact the
de
gree
accom
p
lish
m
ents of
stu
d
e
n
t
s id
en
tified
as d
i
sab
l
ed
,
b
ecau
s
e tech
no
log
y
h
a
s t
h
e ab
ility to
serv
e as an equ
a
lizin
g
ag
en
t.
An
d, it is
expecte
d
t
h
at
online
a
n
d dist
ance
oppo
rt
u
n
i
ties create a
b
r
id
g
e
fo
r stud
en
ts
with
sp
ecial n
e
ed
s to
b
e
ab
le to
purs
ue m
o
re B
achelor’s
and
graduate
degree
s. T
h
is i
nvesti
g
ation m
a
de it clear that m
o
re
resea
r
ch is nee
d
ed.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:22
52-
882
2
IJER
E
V
o
l
.
5,
No
. 1,
M
a
rc
h2
01
6
:
7
6
–
8
1
80
REFERE
NC
ES
[1]
NCD, 2003.Retr
ieved
from http
://
www.icdri.org/Portals/ncd2
.htm.
[2]
Beale, A
.,“Prep
aring stud
ents
with
learn
i
ng
disabilities
fo
r postsecondar
y
education
:
Their
rights
and
responsibilit
ies”,
Techniques: Con
n
ecting Edu
c
atio
n and Careers,
v
o
l/issue: 8
0
(3), p
p
. 24-27
, 2005
.
[3]
Zalaznick, M
.,“
Today
’
s digital
learn
i
ng platfor
m
s come with var
y
ing deg
r
ees
of accessibility for students with
dis
a
bili
ties
.
Ho
w can high
er
ed help
them
s
u
cce
ed
?
”
,
Distrib
u
ted Campus
,
pp. 49-51, 201
3.Retr
ieved
from
http://www.univ
e
rsity
busine
ss.co
m/accessibility
d
istance.
[4]
Francescucci, A., Foster, M.,“Th
e VI
RI classroom: the impact o
f
blende
d s
y
nch
r
onous online course on student
performance, en
gagement
, and
satisfa
ction
”
,
Can
adian Journal of Higher Education
, vol/issue: 43(3), pp. 78-91
,
2013.
[5]
Graham, CR.,“Emerging pr
actice and r
e
sear
ch in ble
nded
learning”, In M.G
.
Moore (Ed
.
), Han
dbook of distan
ce
education,3
rd
.
ed
., New York, NY,Routledg
e, pp
. 333-350
, 2013
.
[6]
Burton, L., Goldsmith, D.,“Students’
experiences in online co
urse: A study
u
s
ing a sy
n
c
hron
ous online focus
groups”, Repor
t presented to
the Connecticut Di
stance Learn
i
ng Consortium, 2002. Retrieved fro
m
http://www.
ctdlc.
org/ResourceDocs/e
valuation/Student
Experience.
pdf.
[7]
Johnson, G., Zascavag
e, V.,
Gerber, S.,“Junior colleg
e
exp
e
rien
ce and stu
d
ents with lear
ning disabilities
:
im
plicat
ions
for
s
u
cces
s
at
th
e fo
ur
year
univ
e
rs
it
y”
,
College Stud
ent Journal
, vo
l/issue: 42(4), pp.
3, 2008
.
[8]
Yuan, L., Powell, S.,
Oliver
, B.,“Bey
ond
MOOCs: Su
stainable on
lin
e learning
in institutions”,C
e
nter f
o
r
Educational Techno
log
y
, Interoper
a
bil
ity
,
and
Standards, 2014. Retrieved
from
http://publicatio
ns.
cetis.ac.uk/20
14/898.
[9]
Sadaghian
i, HR
.,“Using m
u
ltim
edia learning
m
odules in
a
h
y
b
r
id-onlin
e cours
e
in
el
ectricit
y
and m
a
gnet
i
sm
”,
Ph
y
s
ical Education
Resear
ch,201
1.doi: 10.1103
/Ph
y
sRevSTPER.7
.
010102.
[10]
NCES,“People with
disabi
lities and postseco
ndar
y
edu
catio
n”, 2015
. R
e
tr
ieved
Januar
y
22, 2016 from
http:www.ncd.g
ov/newsroom/public
ations/20
03/education.h
t
m.
[11]
Chiang, HM., C
h
eung, YK.,Hickson, L., Xi
ang,
R., Tsai, LY.,“Predictive f
actor
s
of participation in post secondar
y
education for h
i
gh school leaver
s with Autism”,
Jour
nal of Au
tis
m Developmen
ta
l Dis
o
r
d
er
s
, vol. 42, pp. 695-696
,
2012.
[12]
Green, R.,“College success: An evaluation of
a fr
eshman
orientation course for
lear
ning-disabled and non-learnin
g
disabled stud
ents”,
Dissertation
Abstracts Intern
ational S
e
ction A:
Humanities
and Social Sciences
, vo
l. 56
, p
p
.
2172, 1995
.
[13]
Nielsen, J.,“Successful univ
e
rsit
y
stud
ents with
learning
disabi
lities”,vol. 15
, pp
. 3
7
-48, 2001
.
[14]
Chang, K.,
Log
a
n, J.,“
A com
p
a
r
ison of accom
m
odations a
nd supports for students with disabi
liti
es in two-
y
e
a
r
versus four
-
y
ear secon
d
ar
y
institu
ti
ons”, 200
5. Retrieved April 2005
from
http://www.ncset.hawaii.edu/pub
lic
ations/pdf
/ A
%
20comparison%20acco
mmodations%20a nd%2
0
supports.pdf.
[15]
Richards
on, J
T
E
.,“
The
att
a
inm
e
n
t
and exper
i
en
ce
s
of disabled students in distan
ce education”,
Distance Edu
c
ation
,
vol/issue: 30(1), pp.
87-88
,
2009
.
[16]
Ruban LM
.,
M
c
Coach DB.,
M
c
Guire J
M
.,
R
e
is
S
M
., “
T
he differ
e
nti
a
l im
pac
t
of acad
em
ic s
e
lf-r
e
gulator
y m
e
thod
s
on acad
em
ic ac
hievem
ent
am
ong universit
y
st
udents with and
without le
arnin
g
disabili
ties”
,
J Learn Disabil.
,
vol/issue: 36(3), pp.
270-86
,
200
3.
[17]
DaDeppo, LM
W
.,“
Integrat
ion
Factors Rela
ted
to the Acad
em
ic
Success and Intent to Persist of
College Studen
t
s
with Learning
D
i
sabilities”
,
Lear
ning Disabilities
,
2009
.DOI: 10.1
111/j.1540-5826
.2009.00286
.
[18]
Bean,
J
P
.,Kuh,
GD.,“
The re
cipr
ocit
y b
e
twe
e
n s
t
udent-f
acu
l
t
y
i
n
form
al cont
act
and
acad
em
ic
perform
ance
o
f
university
under
g
raduate
stud
ents”,
Research
in
Higher Edu
c
ation
, vol/issue: 21(4)
, 1984.
[19]
Beck, H
P
., D
a
v
i
ds
on, W
B
.,“
Es
ta
blis
hing an ear
l
y
warning s
y
s
t
em
: P
r
edict
i
ng low grades
in coll
eg
e s
t
udents
from
Survey
of Academic Orientations
Scores”,
Resear
ch in
Higher
Ed
ucation
, vol. 42
,
pp. 709-723
, 20
01.
[20]
T
r
oss,
SA.
,
Ha
rpe
r
,
JP.,
Oshe
r,
L
W
.
,
Knei
di
ngcr,
L
M
.,
“Not
j
u
st t
h
e
usua
l
c
a
s
t
of c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
ti
c
s
: Usi
ng pe
rsonality
to pred
ict
co
lleg
e
perfo
rm
ance
a
nd ret
e
ntion
”
,
Jo
urnal of Co
lleg
e
Student Develop
m
ent
, vo
l. 41
, p
p
. 323-334
, 200
0.
[21]
Wolfe, RN., Johnson, SD.,“Pe
r
s
onality
as a predictor
of college performance”,
Edu
c
ationa
l and Psychologica
l
Measurement
, v
o
l. 55
, pp
. 177–1
85, 1995
.
[22]
Ha
be
r,
MG.,
Maz
z
o
tt
i
,
V
L
.,
Must
i
a
n,
AL
.,
Rowe, DA.
,
Bartholomew,
AL.,
T
e
s
t
,
D
W
., F
o
w
l
er, C
H
.,“
W
h
at w
o
rks
,
when, for whom, and with whom
: A m
e
ta-anal
y
tic revi
ew
of predictors of postsecondar
y
su
ccess for students with
disabilities”, Ed
ucation Poli
cy
and Data Cen
t
er
,
Washington, DC
, pp
. 1-33
, 2010
.
[23]
F
e
ldm
a
nn, E.
, M
e
s
s
e
rli, C.
,“
S
u
cces
s
f
ul trans
i
ti
on: The s
t
udent
s
'
pers
pec
tive In
: Reach
ing to t
h
e F
u
ture: Bol
d
l
y
Facing Chal
leng
es in Rural Com
m
unities”,
Las
Vegas: C
onferen
ce Proceedings
of the Am
erican
Council on Rur
a
l
Special Edu
c
atio
n (ACRES), 199
5. ERIC
Do
cument R
e
productio
n
Service No.ED 381 312
.
[24]
Glass, GV.,McG
aw, B
.
, Smith,
ML.,“Me
ta-
a
naly
sis I
social r
e
search”,
London,
Sage Publication
s
, 1981.
[25]
Larwin, KH.,“The impact of
computer-a
ssisted
instruction on
student
achieve
ment in post-sec
ondar
y
statistics
education: A meta-an
a
ly
sis”, Un
published Master’s Thes
is, Kent
State University
,
2005.
[26]
Larwin, KH., Erickson, MJ., Given, EK
.
,
“
T
he
P
o
tentia
l Im
pact
of Online/Dis
t
a
n
ce Edu
cat
ion f
o
r K-12 S
p
ecial
Education Stud
ents: A Meta-
A
naly
ti
c Inves
t
i
g
ation
”
, P
r
es
en
t
a
tion
at
th
e C
onference on
Higher Education
Pedagog
y
.
B
l
ack
s
burg, VA, 2015
.
[27]
Cohen, J., “A power primer”,
Ps
ycholog
ical Bu
lletin
,vol/issue: 112(1), pp. 155-1
59,
1992. New York University
.
Retrieved December 18, 2012 from
http://w
eb.vu.lt/fsf/d
.nor
eika/fil
es
/2011/1
0
/Cohen-J-1992-
A-power-prim
e
r-
kokio-reik
ia-imties-d
y
d
%C5
%
BEio.pdf
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
The Pote
ntial
Impa
ct
of Online/Distance
E
d
ucation for
St
udents
with
Disabilities .... (M
atthew J. Ericks
on)
81
BIOGRAP
HI
ES OF
AUTH
ORS
Dr. Matth
ew Er
ickson is an As
sistant Professo
r
and
Graduate Coordinator in the
Special
Education Department at Slipper
y
Rock Univ
ers
i
ty
. He receiv
e
d
his undergraduate degr
ee in
S
p
ecia
l
Edu
cat
i
on and E
l
em
ent
a
r
y
Edu
cat
ion fr
om
S
lipper
y
Ro
ck Univers
i
t
y
.
He earn
e
d his
Master’s degree in Education with Principa
l
Certifi
c
a
tion fro
m
California Universit
y
of
Penns
y
l
van
i
a. H
e
also
earn
e
d a
Doctorate in
Ed
ucation from Youngstown State
University
. Dr
.
Erickson was a
specia
l
edu
cat
io
n tea
c
her
and
ad
m
i
nistrator in
th
e Philad
e
lphi
a a
nd Pittsburgh
areas. Dr
. Erick
s
on does work
throughout Pen
n
s
y
lvan
ia in pu
blic schools in
the ar
eas of
positive behav
i
o
r
supports, speci
a
l
education
law
a
nd procedures,
and instru
ction
a
l
strat
e
gies
.
Karen Larwin
, Ph.D. acquir
e
d her Ph.D. f
r
om
Kent S
t
ate Univers
i
t
y
i
n
Evalua
tion
,
Measurement, and Statis
tics in
2007. She cur
r
ently
s
e
rves
as an Associate
professor at
Youngstown Sta
t
e Universit
y
. D
r
. Larwin has par
ticip
at
ed as the evalu
a
tor on m
u
ltipl
e
feder
a
l
and statewide g
r
ant supported
p
r
ojects over th
e
past decade. H
e
r primar
y
teaching focus is
inthe ar
ea of r
e
search method
s, quantitativ
e
methods, evalu
a
tion, and meas
urement. She
is
current
l
y
a Ch
air for
the Am
er
ican
Evalu
a
t
i
on
As
s
o
ciation’s
Quantit
ativ
e M
e
th
ods
: Theo
r
y
and Design
TIG.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.