Int
ern
at
i
onal
Journ
al of E
valua
tio
n
an
d
Rese
arch
in
Educati
on (I
JE
RE)
Vo
l.
8
, No
.
4
,
Decem
ber
201
9
, p
p.
64
7
~
65
3
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
,
DOI: 10
.11
591/
ije
r
e
.
v
8
i
4
.
20265
647
Journ
al h
om
e
page
:
http:
//
ia
es
core
.c
om/
journa
ls
/i
ndex.
ph
p/IJE
R
E
In everla
sting fi
gh
t aga
in
st acade
mic pr
ocrastinati
on:
T
he
ro
l
es
of class
room
eng
agem
ent a
nd
inte
rnal locu
s o
f
cont
ro
l
Yen
Li
n
g Hui
,
Kusu
sant
o
Pr
ihadi
, N
aj
i
ya
I
.
Ari
f,
Sa
m
X
.
Y.
Y
ap
,
M
el
is
sa
J.
Chua
,
John Chen
,
Jia
C.
C
hong
,
James L.
H. Y
eow
Depa
rtment
o
f
P
s
y
chol
og
y
,
HE
L
P Unive
rsit
y
,
Malay
si
a
Art
ic
le
In
f
o
ABSTR
A
CT
Art
ic
le
history:
Re
cei
ved
J
ul
31
, 2
01
9
Re
vised
Oct
30
, 2
01
9
Accepte
d
Nov
2
3
, 201
9
Thi
s
stud
y
a
ims
to
t
est
th
e
h
y
p
othe
sis
that
c
la
s
sroom
enga
gement
m
ediate
s
the
relati
onship
bet
wee
n
stude
nts’
int
ern
a
l
locus
of
cont
rol
a
nd
ac
ade
m
i
c
proc
rasti
n
at
ion
.
As
m
any
as
302
student
s
from
a
priva
t
e
unive
rsi
t
y
b
et
we
en
18
to
26
y
e
ars
of
age
were
re
cru
it
ed
to
r
espond
to
Inte
rna
l
-
E
xt
er
nal
Loc
us
of
cont
rol
Sca
le,
Cla
ss
room
Enga
gement
I
nvent
or
y
,
an
d
Aca
demic
Procra
stination
sca
le.
Bootstr
ap
ping
anal
y
s
es
were
condu
ct
ed
b
y
utilizing
PR
OCESS
Mac
ro
m
odel
4
in
SPSS
software
,
and
the
result
s
showe
d
tha
t
the
m
edi
at
or
v
ari
ab
l
e
fully
m
edi
a
te
s
the
l
ink
b
et
wee
n
the
pr
edictor
an
d
outc
om
e
var
ia
b
le
s.
In
ot
her
words
,
the
dire
c
t
eff
e
ct
of
int
ern
al
lo
cus
of
cont
rol
on
ac
ad
emic
proc
r
asti
nation
was
no
longe
r
signi
fic
an
t
when
co
ntrol
li
ng
fo
r
cl
assroom
enga
gement.
Further
discussion,
im
pli
c
at
ions
and
sugge
stions
were
pr
ese
nte
d
a
t
th
e end
of
the artic
l
e
.
Ke
yw
or
d
s
:
Acad
em
ic
p
r
oc
rasti
nation
Cl
assroom
en
ga
gem
ent
Loc
us
of co
ntr
ol
Copyright
©
201
9
Instit
ut
e
o
f Ad
vanc
ed
Engi
n
ee
r
ing
and
S
cienc
e
.
Al
l
rights re
serv
ed
.
Corres
pond
in
g
Aut
h
or
:
Ku
s
us
a
nto
Pr
i
ha
di,
Dep
a
rtm
ent o
f Psy
cho
l
ogy,
HELP U
niv
e
rs
it
y,
No.2, Pe
rsiara
n
Ca
ker
a
wala,
Sect
ion
U
4,
40
1050 S
ha
h Alam
, S
el
ang
or,
Ma
la
ysi
a.
Em
a
il
: pr
ihadi.
k@help
.edu.m
y
1.
INTROD
U
CTION
Up
unti
l
to
day,
pr
ocr
ast
inati
on
rem
ai
ns
as
a
phe
no
m
enon
that
is
not
pro
per
ly
unde
rs
tood
[1,
2]
.
So
m
e
of
t
he
c
on
ce
r
ns
per
ta
i
ning
t
o
procr
a
s
ti
nation
is
the
neg
at
ive
c
on
se
qu
e
nces
of
it
i
n
daily
li
ves;
in
wors
e
case
scena
rios,
it
has
beco
m
e
a
m
alici
ou
s
way
of
li
fe
for
s
om
e
ind
ividu
al
s
[
3]
.
Pro
crasti
natio
n
pr
edict
s
var
i
ou
s
aspect
s
of
our
li
ves
and
has
bee
n
m
or
e
com
m
on
ly
stud
ie
d
i
n
hi
gh
e
r
ed
ucati
on
set
ti
ngs
[
4]
,
wh
e
r
e
stud
e
nts
te
nd
t
o
c
om
plete
assignm
ents
on
ly
at
the
ve
ry
la
st
m
inu
te
pri
or
to
their
de
a
dlin
es
[
5]
.
Co
ntext
ually
,
the
te
rm
acad
e
m
ic
pr
ocr
a
sti
nation
ref
e
rs
t
o
the
inte
ntio
nal
delay
of
academ
ic
-
related
ta
sk
s
i
n
s
pite
of
antic
ipati
ng
ne
gative
c
onseq
ue
nces
s
uc
h
as
poorer
aca
dem
ic
perform
ance
an
d
ps
yc
holo
gical
well
b
ei
ng
[
3]
.
Acad
em
ic
proc
rasti
nation
am
ong
unde
r
gr
a
duat
e
stu
de
nts
ha
pp
e
ns
on
a
da
y
to
day
ba
sis,
an
d
it
is
re
por
te
d
to
be
pr
ob
le
m
at
ic
as
it
reduces
pro
du
ct
ivit
y
[4]
.
It
is
al
so
viewed
a
s
a
re
su
l
t
o
f
ir
rati
onal
thou
gh
t
process
es
in
relat
ion
t
o
aca
dem
ic
p
erf
orm
ance, suc
h
as
bei
ng
unable t
o fu
lfil
thei
r dail
y dem
and
s as
s
tud
e
nts
[
6]
.
It
has
bee
n
re
porte
d
that
inter
nal
facto
rs
co
nt
ribu
te
d
to
pro
crasti
natio
n
be
hav
i
our
[
5]
su
c
h
as
le
arn
e
d
helpless
ness
[7]
,
sel
f
-
est
eem
[8]
,
sel
f
-
ef
ficacy
[9
,
10]
,
neg
a
ti
ve
sel
f
-
a
pprai
sal
s
on
per
s
on
al
respo
ns
ibil
it
y
a
nd
abili
ty
in
co
m
pleti
ng
[
11]
,
as
well
as
locu
s
of
c
on
tr
ol
[
6,
12
-
14]
.
I
nterr
el
at
ionshi
p
am
on
g
these
in
te
rn
a
l
factors
predict
s
academ
ic
pr
ocr
ast
inati
on
t
end
e
ncy
am
on
g
stu
den
ts;
ne
ver
t
heless,
it
is
i
m
per
at
ive
to
stu
dy
factors
th
at
e
ducat
ors
ca
n
al
te
r
in
orde
r
to
r
edu
ce
the
te
ndency
of
aca
de
m
ic
pr
oc
rasti
na
ti
on
.
In
the
c
onte
xt
of
this
current
stu
dy,
the
r
ole
of
cl
assroom
eng
agem
ent
in
expl
ai
nin
g
the
li
nk
between
st
ud
e
nts’
loc
us
of
con
t
ro
l
and
t
heir
proc
r
ast
inati
on
te
nd
ency
was
i
nv
e
sti
gated,
because
ed
ucato
rs
c
an
be
trai
ne
d
t
o
im
pr
ov
e
stu
den
ts
’
cl
assroom
engagem
ent
[15]
.
In
oth
e
r
words
,
ed
ucati
on
sta
keholde
rs
s
ho
uld
be
a
ble
to
fo
c
us
on
cha
nelli
ng
their
ef
fort
to
i
m
pr
ove
the
cl
assroom
engagem
ent
wh
e
n
it
i
s
pr
oven
to
co
ntribute
to
the
reducti
on
of
procr
a
sti
nation t
end
e
ncy.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
201
9
: 6
4
7
-
65
3
648
Alm
os
t
a
decad
e
ag
o,
a
nothe
r
stu
dy
in
the
c
on
te
xt
of
Ma
la
ysi
an
edu
c
at
io
n
set
ti
ng
r
ep
or
t
ed
that
loc
us
of
c
on
t
ro
l
m
ediat
es
the
li
nk
be
tween
st
ud
e
nt
s’
pe
rce
ption
of
te
acher
s’
e
xpect
ancy
on
t
he
ir
sel
f
-
est
eem
[16]
.
In
oth
e
r
words
,
they
in
dicat
ed
that
the
way
the
stu
den
ts
c
red
it
them
sel
ves
for
thei
r
ev
ents,
ca
n
ex
pla
in
the
li
nk
betwee
n
t
heir
per
ce
ptio
n
of
te
ache
rs’
e
xp
ect
a
ncy
an
d
the
way
they
value
t
hem
sel
ves.
A
nothe
r
st
ud
y
i
n
Alba
nia
est
ablished
that
loc
us
of
c
on
tr
ol,
t
og
et
her
with
ot
her
pe
rs
on
al
it
y
factor
s,
play
ed
im
po
rtant
r
ole
in
pr
e
dicti
ng
proc
rasti
nation
[
17]
.
It
is
worth
t
o
note
that
sel
f
-
est
eem
was
also
re
porte
d
as
a
strong
p
red
ic
tor
of
procr
a
sti
nation
[8]
.
In
li
ne
wi
th
that,
ano
t
her
stud
y
in
Ma
laysia
n
con
te
xt
rep
ort
ed
that
w
hen
stu
de
nts
be
li
eve
that t
hey are in
co
ntr
ol o
f
thei
r
even
ts (
posse
ss h
ig
h
le
vel o
f
intern
al
locu
s
of
contr
ol)
, th
e
less li
kely
they
w
ill
procr
a
sti
nate
doin
g
their
ta
s
ks
al
though
the
y
belie
ve
that
they
are
inca
pa
ble
of
finis
hi
ng
t
he
ta
sk
prop
e
rly
[13]
.
Othe
r
tha
n
that,
exter
na
l
factor
s
su
c
h
as
the
existe
nc
e
of
a
well
-
str
uctu
red
aca
de
m
ic
go
al
pr
edi
ct
s
the
decr
ease
of
ac
adem
ic
pr
oc
ra
sti
nation
[
2]
and
a
rece
nt
stud
y
done
in
a
m
at
he
m
at
ic
s
class
(8
th
an
d
10
th
gr
ade
stud
e
nts)
s
h
owed
that
int
rinsi
c
m
otivati
on
and
e
ffo
rt
are
predict
ed
by
goal
structu
res
t
hat
ai
m
to
pro
m
ote
auto
no
m
y
and
per
s
onal
achie
vem
ent
[18]
;
wh
e
re
by
stud
e
nts
te
nd
to
c
ope
bette
r
with
t
heir
aca
dem
ic
relat
ed
ta
sk
s
wh
e
n
t
he
y
set
go
al
s
[
19]
.
This
is
s
upporte
d
by
the
th
eor
y
of
loc
us
of
c
ontr
ol
[
20
]
.
I
n
c
on
t
rast,
whe
n
stud
e
nts
ha
ve
exter
nal
locu
s
of
c
ontr
ol,
su
c
h
as
a
se
ns
e
of
blam
e
towards
oth
er
s,
they
te
nd
t
o
esca
pe
the
antic
ipa
te
d
fail
ur
e
by
e
ngagi
ng
in
academ
i
c
proc
rasti
nation
[
11]
.
T
he
a
forem
entioned
stu
dies
s
howe
d
th
a
t
locus
of
c
ontr
ol
is
a
robust
pr
e
dictor
t
hat
exp
la
ine
d
the
con
tri
buti
on
of
e
xter
nal
or
internal
fact
ors
on
academ
ic
pr
oc
rasti
natio
n.
T
hus,
it
le
ads
to
a
quest
ion
w
he
ther
the
predi
ct
ing
power
of
locus
of
c
on
tr
ol
on
academ
ic
pr
oc
rasti
nation
can
be
m
ediat
ed
by
any
ot
her
exter
nal
facto
r
s.
It
is
note
w
ort
hy
to
a
ns
w
er
su
c
h
1`
z+
as
qu
est
io
n
beca
us
e the task of
edu
cat
ors to i
m
pr
ov
e stud
e
nts’
inter
na
l l
ocu
s o
f
co
ntr
ol in
order
to
r
educ
e
their
procr
a
sti
na
ti
on
ha
bit
is
ve
ry
com
plica
te
d,
since
l
oc
us
of
co
ntr
ol
is
ei
ther
i
nborn
or
dev
el
op
e
d
at
a
ve
ry
young age
.
Past
stud
ie
s
in
the
area
of
pr
ocr
ast
inati
on
s
uggeste
d
that
the
stud
e
nts
’
soc
ia
l
env
iro
nm
e
nt
(su
c
h
as
peer
s a
nd teac
her
s
)
m
igh
t pr
e
dict t
heir
proc
r
ast
inati
on
b
e
ha
viour
[21,
3]
. Fur
t
her
m
or
e, cla
ssroom
en
gag
e
m
ent
is
a
pr
e
dicto
r
of
m
any
desir
able
academ
ic
trai
ts.
For
ins
ta
nce,
a
st
ud
y
a
m
on
g
68
7
co
ll
ege
st
ud
e
nts
in
th
e
Ph
il
ipp
i
nes
re
ported
that
cl
assroom
eng
agem
ent
sign
ific
antly
and
po
sit
ively
i
m
pac
ts
colle
ge
experience
(learn
i
ng
ex
pe
rience
i
n
c
ollege)
,
w
hic
h
s
ubseq
uen
tl
y
af
fe
ct
s
their
aca
de
m
ic
per
f
or
m
ance
[
15
]
.
In
li
ne
with
th
at
,
a
m
et
a
-
analy
sis
on
cl
ass
r
oo
m
eng
a
gem
ent
an
d
ac
hiev
e
m
ent
base
d
on
92
stu
dies
publ
ished
f
ro
m
1990
to
2011
with
a
t
otal
of
129,4
23
res
pons
es
obta
ined
f
r
om
pr
im
ary
and
s
econda
ry
sc
hool
stu
de
nts
re
ported
a
gen
e
ral
c
onsen
su
s
t
hat
po
sit
iv
e
te
acher
stu
de
nt
rel
at
io
nship
is
associat
ed
w
it
h
hi
gh
e
r
sc
ho
ol
e
ng
a
gem
ent
an
d
academ
ic
achievem
ent
[22]
.
It
can
be
co
nclud
e
d
that
w
he
n
stud
e
nts
pe
rc
ei
ve
their
env
i
ronm
ent
in
a
p
os
it
ive
li
gh
t,
w
her
e
by
they
par
ti
cula
rly
feel
su
ppor
te
d
an
d
care
d
for
by
their
e
du
cat
or
s
,
will
te
nd
to
hav
e
hi
gh
e
r
sch
oo
l e
ngage
m
ent an
d ac
a
dem
ic
achievem
ent.
Si
m
il
ar
find
in
gs
on
the
im
portance
of
ha
ving
a
posit
ive
te
acher
-
stu
den
t
relat
io
nship
ha
d
bee
n
repor
te
d
ov
e
r
t
he
pa
st
fe
w
de
cades;
f
or
e
xa
m
ple,
a
stud
y
done
am
ong
c
hi
ldre
n
betwee
n
7
an
d
12
ye
ars
ol
d
fou
nd
that
stu
de
nts
te
nd
to
ha
ve
a
m
or
e
po
si
ti
ve
at
titud
e
to
wards
le
arn
i
ng
,
su
ch
as
ta
king
m
or
e
init
ia
t
i
ves
in
their
le
ar
ning
r
el
at
ed
ta
sk
s
w
hen
the
te
ac
he
rs
are
sup
portive
a
nd
i
nvolv
e
d
in
t
heir
le
ar
ni
ng
relat
ed
act
ivit
ie
s
[23]
,
a
nd
a
l
ongitud
i
nal
stu
dy
on
2079
high
sch
oo
l
st
ud
e
nt
s
acr
os
s
18
A
ust
rali
an
sc
hool
s,
wh
ic
h
repor
t
ed
th
at
acro
s
s
va
rio
us
sch
oo
l
s
ubj
ec
ts,
the
nee
d
f
or
im
pr
ove
d
r
el
at
ion
sh
i
ps
be
tween
st
ud
e
nt
s
and
te
ac
hers
was
highli
gh
te
d
w
her
e
by
gr
eat
e
r
te
acher
-
st
ud
e
nt
relat
ion
s
hip
is
po
sit
ively
correla
te
d
with
i
m
pr
ove
d
academ
ic
involvem
ent
[24]
.
In
short
,
pu
tt
in
g
in
e
ffo
rt
to
en
ha
nce
t
eacher
-
stu
de
nt
relat
ion
s
hip
s
m
igh
t
le
ad
to
gr
eat
e
r
academ
ic
inv
ol
vem
ent b
y t
he s
tud
e
nts.
More
ov
e
r,
it
se
e
m
s
that
peer
r
el
at
ion
sh
i
p
in
c
la
ssroom
set
ti
n
gs
ref
e
rs
to
ho
w
well
stud
e
nt
s
can
relat
e
to
or
i
nteract
with
thei
r
cl
as
sm
a
te
s,
wh
ic
h
has
bee
n
fou
nd
to
be
a
fac
tor
of
the
stu
de
nts’
overall
l
earn
i
ng
exp
e
rience
a
nd
academ
ic
per
f
or
m
ance
[25]
.
This
is
f
urt
her
s
uppo
rted
by
a
rece
nt
m
et
a
-
analy
sis
wh
ic
h
rev
eal
e
d
that
there
is
a
sig
nif
ic
ant
relat
ion
s
hip
bet
wee
n
stud
e
nt
en
ga
ge
m
ent
(stud
e
nts
’
le
vel
of
in
vo
lvem
en
t
in
le
arn
i
ng
rela
te
d
ta
sk
s
)
an
d
academ
ic
per
f
or
m
ance,
w
he
r
eby
great
er
stu
den
t
e
ng
a
gem
ent
is
associat
e
d
with
gr
eat
er
acade
m
ic
per
f
or
m
ance
[26]
.
Nev
e
r
thele
ss,
the
te
r
m
s
te
acher
-
st
udent
relat
ion
s
hi
p,
peer
relat
edn
e
ss,
coach
i
ng
relat
ion
s
hi
p,
a
nd
stud
e
nt
e
ng
a
ge
m
ent
in
the
c
on
te
xt
of
ac
a
dem
ic
le
arn
ing
seem
to
sh
are
certai
n
si
m
il
arities,
wh
ere
by
they
can
al
l
be
re
la
te
d
to
the
interact
io
ns
an
d
relat
ionshi
ps
in
their
le
arn
i
ng
env
i
ronm
ent. Briefly
, anothe
r
sim
il
ar co
nce
pt is the “co
ac
hing r
el
at
io
ns
hi
p”,
whe
reb
y t
he
r
ole of a coac
h
is t
o
faci
li
ta
te
the
coach
ee
’s
le
ar
nin
g
e
xp
e
rience
,
enab
li
ng
them
to
be
m
or
e
autonom
ou
s
and
sel
f
-
ef
ficaci
ou
s,
and
ultim
at
ely
red
uc
e
proc
rasti
nat
ion
be
hav
i
our
[27]
.
T
his
re
fle
ct
s
the
idea
t
ha
t
edu
cat
or
s
ha
ve
an
im
po
rta
nt
ro
le
in
f
os
te
ri
ng
a m
or
e
eff
ect
ive an
d
pr
oductive
le
arn
i
ng
en
vir
on
m
ent
f
or
stu
den
ts
[
28
]
,
w
hi
ch
ca
n
be
e
xpe
ct
ed
to
reduce
aca
dem
ic
procr
ast
inati
on
i
n
the
lo
ng
run.
Apart
f
rom
that,
ano
th
er
stud
y
do
ne
a
m
on
g
200
a
dole
scents
in
the
Ri
vers
Stat
e
of
Nigeri
a,
locus
of
c
ontr
ol
has
been
li
nk
ed
t
o
le
ar
ned
helpless
ne
ss,
w
hich
ulti
m
at
ely
con
t
rib
utes
to
academ
ic
challen
ge
s
fa
ced
by
the
st
ud
e
nts
[
29
]
.
The
ex
-
post
facto
stu
dy
f
ur
t
her
ex
plaine
d
tha
t
the
m
or
e
the
env
i
ronm
ent
i
s
per
cei
ve
d
as
un
c
on
t
ro
ll
abl
e,
the
easi
er
it
is
fo
r
them
t
o
view
fail
ur
e
as
an
inevita
ble
out
com
e.
These
stud
e
nts
are
m
or
e
li
kely
t
o
ex
pe
rience
le
arn
e
d
hel
plessness
,
res
ulti
ng
i
n
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
In everl
as
ti
ng f
igh
t
against
a
c
ad
e
mic
procra
sti
na
ti
on:
T
he
ro
le
s
of class
r
oom
e
ngage
me
nt
…
(
Yen Li
ng
Hui
)
649
pro
blem
a
ti
c
beh
avi
ours
that
c
on
t
rib
utes
to
t
heir
aca
dem
ic
chall
enges
[29]
.
Si
m
il
arly
,
a
n
ex
-
po
st
facto
stud
y
on
academ
ic
pr
oc
rasti
natio
n
was
c
onduct
ed
with
a
sam
ple
siz
e
of
10
7
st
ud
e
nts
from
a
n
I
sla
m
ic
edu
c
at
ion
al
insti
tuti
on
[6]
.
The
st
ud
y
f
ound
that
st
ud
e
nts
with
high
internal
loc
us
of
c
ontrol
belie
ve
that
thei
r
effort
determ
ines the
ou
tc
om
e o
f
the
ir su
cces
s or
fa
il
ur
es, a
nd thei
r
belie
f
en
a
bles
them
to
feel m
or
e c
onfi
den
t a
bout
them
sel
ves,
which e
xpla
i
ns
t
heir hig
her le
ve
ls of ef
fort a
nd a
bili
ty
to
accom
plish tasks on tim
e.
The
a
forem
entioned
stu
dies
ref
le
ct
e
d
the
idea
that
cl
assroom
eng
a
gem
ent
can
ha
ve
a
stron
g
influ
e
nce
on
stud
e
nts’
ov
e
rall
le
arn
in
g
exp
e
r
ie
nce,
inclu
dig
academ
ic
pr
oc
rasti
natio
n.
It
h
as
al
so
been
no
te
d
that
resea
rch
i
n
th
e
a
rea
of
stud
e
nt
e
ng
a
ge
m
ent
is
ins
uffici
ent,
s
pecific
al
ly
du
e
t
o
t
he
la
ck
of
st
ud
i
es
on
cl
assroom
engagem
ent
le
vel
[30]
.
Give
n
t
ha
t
internal
loc
us
of
c
ontrol
pla
ys
a
pr
om
inent
r
ole
on
the
stu
den
ts
’
at
ti
tud
e
towa
r
ds
their
aca
dem
ic
s
[6]
,
it
co
ul
d
be
that
stu
de
nts
with
hi
gh
i
nter
nal
locu
s
of
co
ntr
ol
te
nd
to
be
m
or
e
eng
age
d
in
their
cl
assroom
s,
and
ta
ke
m
or
e
init
iatives
in
le
arn
ing,
wh
ic
h
co
uld
exp
la
in
thei
r
de
crea
se
d
te
nd
e
ncy
to
pr
ocr
ast
inate
.
He
nce,
it
is
hy
po
t
hesized
that
cl
assroom
eng
a
gem
ent
will
m
e
diate
the
relat
ion
s
hi
p
betwee
n
inter
na
l
locus
of
c
ontrol
an
d
aca
de
m
ic
pr
ocr
a
sti
na
ti
on
,
wh
e
re
by
high
inter
nal
locu
s
of
co
ntr
ol
will
pr
e
dict
high
c
la
ssroom
eng
a
gem
ent,
wh
ic
h
su
bse
que
ntly
pr
e
dicts
low
academ
ic
pr
oc
rasti
nation.
F
or
the
pur
po
se
of
thi
s
pap
e
r,
the
t
erm
c
la
ssro
om
eng
a
gem
ent
will
be
us
ed
to
ref
e
r
to
th
e
le
vel
of
stu
den
ts
’
involvem
ent
in
cl
assroom
le
arn
in
g
relat
ed
ac
ti
viti
es
[31]
,
as
well
as
so
ci
al
interact
ions
in
cl
assroom
setti
ng
s
.
In
or
der
f
or
ed
ucato
rs
to
fo
st
er
m
or
e
cl
assr
oo
m
eng
agem
ent
and
intere
st
in
le
arn
in
g,
it
was
sugge
ste
d
that
the
le
sso
n
plans
,
or
act
ivit
ie
s
sh
ould
be
str
uctured
su
c
h
that
it
encou
rag
es
i
nvolv
em
ent
of
th
e
stud
e
nts’
releva
nc
e
(how
well
the
stud
e
nts
can
re
la
te
to
the
top
ic
),
res
ponsi
bili
ty
(stud
e
nts
can
le
arn
a
uton
om
ou
sly
),
and
r
eal
it
y
(appli
cable t
o r
eal
-
li
fe proble
m
-
so
lving
sk
il
ls)
[
32]
.
Re
searche
rs
i
n
the
a
rea
of
e
du
cat
io
n,
es
pe
ci
al
ly
in
the
edu
cat
io
nal
set
t
ing
sim
il
ar
or
identic
al
to
Ma
la
ysi
a,
wo
ul
d
find
this
cu
r
ren
t
stu
dy
relevan
t
as
it
sh
ed
s
li
gh
t
on
the
im
po
rtance
of
c
la
ssroom
eng
agem
ent
on
stu
de
nts’
at
ti
tud
e
to
wards
le
arn
i
ng
relat
ed
ta
s
ks
.
Mor
eov
e
r,
the
knowle
dge
ob
ta
i
n
ed
from
su
ch
stud
ie
s
ind
ic
at
ed
the
need
t
o
en
ha
nc
e
trai
ning
pr
ogram
m
es
fo
r
the
edu
c
at
ors
and
oth
e
r
sta
ff
m
e
m
ber
s
in
the
edu
cat
io
nal
se
tt
ing
s
to
im
p
rove
the
stu
de
nts’
s
ocial
env
i
ronm
ent,
i
nclu
ding
the
le
vel
of
cl
ass
room
eng
a
gem
ent
[
24]
.
2.
RESEA
R
CH MET
HO
D
Partic
ipants
of
this
cu
rr
e
nt
stud
y
c
onsist
ed
of
302
unde
r
gradu
at
e
st
ud
e
nt
s
from
a
pr
ivat
e
un
i
ver
sit
y
in
Ma
la
ysi
a
(237
w
om
en,
64
m
en,
an
d
on
e
pr
e
ferred
to
be
no
t
i
den
ti
fie
d
by
ge
nd
e
r).
I
nf
or
m
ed
co
ns
e
nt
for
m
and
dem
ographics
qu
e
sti
on
na
ire
we
re
pro
vid
ed
be
f
or
e
t
he
qu
e
sti
onnaire
,
wh
e
re
by
cl
ic
kin
g
ne
xt
to
pr
oc
eed
t
o
the
quest
io
nna
ire
in
dicat
ed
t
hat
the
pa
rtic
ipants
ha
ve
re
ad
a
nd
ag
ree
d
to
giv
e
i
nform
ed
co
ns
e
nt.
The
par
ti
ci
pa
nts’
a
ge
range
d
fro
m
18
to
26
y
ears
old
,
w
he
r
eby
14
8
par
ti
c
ipants
were
18
-
20
ye
ars
ol
d,
147
par
ti
ci
pa
nts
w
ere
21
-
23
ye
ar
s
ol
d,
a
nd
only
7
pa
rtic
ipants
we
re
24
-
26
ye
ars
old.
A
tot
al
of
28
0
par
ti
ci
pan
ts
m
ajo
re
d
i
n
s
oc
ia
l
sci
ence,
10
par
ti
ci
pa
nts
m
ajo
re
d
i
n
sci
ence,
an
d
9
pa
rtic
ipants
m
ajored
in
a
rts.
M
os
t
of
them
pa
rtic
ipate
d
volu
ntaril
y
an
d
ac
knowle
dg
e
d
t
hat
no
com
pen
sat
io
n
was
giv
e
n
f
or
their
pa
rtic
ip
at
ion
;
howe
ver,
thos
e
who
are
psy
cho
lo
gy
un
de
rgraduate
stu
den
ts
of
a
M
al
ay
sia
n
pr
iva
te
un
ive
rsity
wer
e
com
pen
sat
ed wit
h 0.25%
e
xtra
c
ourse
c
red
i
ts for t
heir part
ic
ipat
ion
.
A
dem
ographi
c
qu
e
sti
onnaire
was
use
d
t
o
c
ollec
t
dem
og
ra
ph
ic
in
f
or
m
at
i
on
w
hich
wer
e
age,
gende
r,
wh
ic
h
m
ajo
r
th
ey
wer
e
stu
dying
in
,
a
nd
the
country
t
hey
w
ere
st
ud
yi
ng
i
n.
Rott
er
I
nter
na
l
-
Exter
nal
L
oc
us
of
con
t
ro
l Scal
e
was
use
d
t
o
m
easur
e
pa
rtic
ipants’
le
vel
of
I
LOC. T
he
scal
e con
sist
e
d
of
29
it
em
s,
wh
er
eby each
it
e
m
had
two
s
ta
tem
ents.
Among
t
he
it
e
m
s
wer
e
“
28a.
Wh
at
happe
ns
to
m
e
is
m
y
ow
n
do
i
ng,
b.
S
om
e
tim
es
I
feel
that
I
do
n’t
hav
e
en
ough
con
t
ro
l
over
t
he
directi
on
m
y
li
fe
is
ta
king”,
a
nd
“2
9a.
Mos
t
of
t
he
ti
m
e
I
can’t
unde
rstan
d
w
hy
po
li
ti
ci
ans
beh
ave
the
wa
y
they
do
,
b.
In
the
lo
ng
r
un
pe
op
le
are
r
esp
on
si
ble
for
bad
gove
rn
m
ent
on
a n
at
ion
al
as w
el
l
as
a
local
level”
.
T
he
i
nst
ru
ct
io
n
for
t
his
scal
e
r
eq
uire
d
par
ti
ci
pa
nts
t
o
sel
ect
the st
at
e
m
ent (
a o
r
b) they agre
ed
with the most. I
te
m
s n
umber 1,
8, 14, 19, 24, and
27 w
e
re f
il
le
rs.
Th
is
scal
e
had
high
reli
ab
il
ity
as
the
Cron
bac
h
al
pha
w
as
.74
(La
ng
e
&
Tigg
em
ann
,
1981).
I
LOC
was
m
easur
ed
base
d
on the t
otal sco
re
of
t
he
scal
e,
wh
e
re
by a
high
er
total
score
ind
ic
at
ed
h
i
gh
e
r
I
LOC.
The
Cl
ass
roo
m
Eng
agem
ent
I
nv
e
ntory
(
W
ang
et
al
.,
20
14)
was
use
d
to
m
easur
e
pa
rtic
ipants’
le
vel
of
cl
assr
oom
e
ng
a
gem
ent.
Th
e
scal
e
con
sist
ed
of
24
it
e
m
s
wh
ic
h
wer
e
m
easur
ed
on
a
5
-
po
i
nt
li
ker
t
scal
e,
wh
e
re
by
1
=
ne
ver,
2
=
hardly
ever
,
3
=
m
on
t
hly,
4
=
we
ekly
,
an
d
5
=
each
day
of
cl
ass.
T
he
par
ti
c
ipant
s
wer
e
as
ke
d
to
rate
the
it
e
m
s
base
d
on
how
they
usual
ly
feel
durin
g
cl
ass
tim
e.
The
it
e
m
s
wer
e
sta
teme
nts
su
c
h
as
“
11.
I
don’t
wa
nt
to
sto
p
wor
king
at
the
e
nd
of
cl
ass”
a
nd
“12.
I
act
i
vely
par
ti
ci
pate
in
cl
ass
discuss
i
ons”.
Ite
m
s
22
,
23,
an
d
24
we
re
re
ve
rse
sc
or
e
d
it
em
s,
w
he
reb
y
a
hi
gh
e
r
sc
or
e
f
or
these
it
em
s
ind
ic
at
e
lowe
r
le
vels
of
cl
assr
oo
m
eng
a
gem
ent.
Exam
ples
of
re
ver
se
sc
ored
i
tem
s
included
“23.
I
le
t
m
y
m
ind
wande
r”
a
nd
“
24.
I
just
pr
et
e
nd
li
ke
I
’m
work
i
ng
”
.
T
he
rel
ia
bili
ty
te
st
sh
ow
e
d
a
m
od
er
at
e
to
m
od
erat
el
y
hig
h
le
vel
of
reli
a
bili
ty
,
wh
ereb
y
t
he
Cr
onbac
h
al
ph
a
for
the
it
em
s
of
the
in
ve
ntory
range
d
from
.6
2
to
.
86
(
Wang
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
201
9
: 6
4
7
-
65
3
650
et
al
.,
20
14).
Cl
assroom
engagem
ent
was
m
easu
red
ba
se
d
on
the
t
otal
scor
e
of
the
sc
al
e,
w
her
e
by
a
higher
total
sco
re
in
di
cat
es h
ig
her le
vels
of
class
r
oom
en
gag
em
en
t.
The
Aca
dem
ic
Pr
oc
rasti
natio
n
scal
e
(
Lay
,
1986)
was
us
e
d
to
m
easur
e
aca
dem
ic
pr
oc
rast
inati
on
.
T
he
scal
e
co
ns
ist
ed
of
20
it
em
s
w
hich
we
r
e
m
easur
ed
on
a
5
-
point
li
ke
rt
scal
e,
wh
e
reb
y
1
=
e
xtr
e
m
el
y
un
c
ha
racteri
sti
c
an
d
5
=
extre
m
el
y
char
act
er
ist
ic
.
The
par
ti
ci
pan
ts
were
as
ked
to
rate
eac
h
it
em
in
accor
dan
c
e
to
how
cl
os
el
y
it
rep
rese
nts
them
.
So
m
e
exa
m
ples
of
the
it
e
m
s
include
d
“17.
I
usual
ly
bu
y
an
esse
ntial
it
e
m
at
the
la
st
m
inu
te
”
a
nd
“1
9.
I
am
con
ti
nu
al
l
y
say
ing
I’
ll
do
it
tom
or
r
ow”
.
Item
s
3,
4,
6,
8,
11,
13,
14,
15,
18,
and
20
we
re
rev
e
rse
sc
ored
it
em
s,
wh
ereb
y
higher
scor
e
s
f
or
t
he
se
it
e
m
s
ind
ic
at
ed
le
ss
academ
ic
procr
a
sti
nation.
T
he
re
v
e
rse
s
cor
e
d
it
em
s
wer
e
s
uch
as
“
3.
Wh
e
n
I
am
finish
e
d
wit
h
a
li
brary
book,
I
return
i
t
rig
ht
away
re
ga
rd
le
ss
of
t
he
date
it
is
du
e
”
and
“
4.
When
it
is
tim
e
to
ge
t
out
of
be
d
i
n
the
m
ornin
g,
I
m
os
t
of
te
n
get
rig
ht
ou
t
of
be
d”.
The
scal
e
had
high
ov
e
rall
int
er
nal
reli
abili
ty
as
the
Cronbac
h
al
ph
a
w
as
.
94
(McC
losk
ey
&
Scie
lz
o,
2015)
.
Aca
dem
ic
pr
ocr
ast
inati
on
was
m
easur
ed
base
d
on
the
t
ot
al
scor
e
of
t
he
scal
e,
wh
e
re
by a
higher
total
score
ind
ic
at
ed
m
or
e academ
ic
p
ro
c
rasti
nation.
3.
RESU
LT
S
A
ND
DI
SCUS
S
ION
P
rocess
m
acros
Mo
del
4
in
S
PSS
20
s
of
t
wa
re
was
util
iz
ed
in
orde
r
to
co
nduct
bootstra
p
a
naly
ses
t
o
al
l t
he
pat
hs
a
nd the
r
es
ults ar
e com
piled in
t
he
Ta
ble
1.
Table
1.
Res
ults o
f
the
m
ediation
a
naly
ses
of each
path
pat
h
a
pat
h
b
pat
h
c
pat
h
ab
pat
h
c’
F(1,3)=
12.
56
p<.
001,
R²=.
04
b=.
66,
t(3)=
-
.
3.
54
,
p
<.001
F(2,299)=
18.
18
p<.
001,
R²=.
11
Controll
ed
for I
LO
C
b=
-
.
25
,
t(299)=
-
1
.
36,
p=.
171
F(1,300)=
5.
80
p=.
017,
R²=.
02
b=.
-
45,
t(300)=
-
2
.
41,
p=.
017
(b=
-
1.
45)
BCaCI[
-
3.
37,
-
.
1
8]
Does not
co
ntain
zero
F(2,299)=
18.
18
p=.
171,
R²=.
11
Controll
ed
for I
LO
C
b=.
15,
t(299)=
-
.
250,
p=.
171
Table
1
dep
ic
ts
the
inte
rr
el
at
ion
s
hip
am
on
g
va
riables
.
Path
a
s
hows
that
I
LOC
ha
s
sig
nifican
t
po
sit
ive
ef
fect on
cl
assr
oom
e
ng
a
gem
ent
[
F
(
1,3)
=
12.
56,
p
<
.001
]
.
I
n
oth
e
r
words,
t
he
pr
e
dictor
has
sig
ni
ficant
po
sit
ive
e
ff
ect
on
t
he
m
ediat
or
(
b=
.
66);
w
hi
ch
m
eans
that
on
e
-
po
i
nt
incre
m
ent
of
the
IL
OC
of
a
par
ti
ci
pant
le
d
to
the
0.66
po
i
nts
incr
e
m
ent
of
cl
assroom
eng
age
m
ent.
In
path
b
,
it
was
sh
own
that
cl
assroo
m
eng
a
gem
ent
as
a
m
od
el
(i
nteracti
on
bet
wee
n
ILO
C
an
d
c
la
ssroom
eng
a
gem
ent)
sig
nif
ic
antly
pr
e
dicts
th
e
decr
ease
aca
de
m
ic
pr
ocr
a
sti
na
ti
on
am
on
g
th
e
par
ti
ci
pa
nts
[
F
(2,29
9)
=
18.
18,
p
<.
001];
one
po
i
nt
increm
ent
of
the
m
od
el
of
c
la
ssroom
eng
a
gem
ent
drop
s
academ
i
c
pr
oc
rasti
nation
by
0.25
points
(
b=
-
.
25).
F
ur
t
he
rm
or
e,
path
c
s
hows
t
hat
IL
OC
sig
ni
ficantl
y
pr
edi
ct
s
AP
[
F
(
1,300)
=
5.8
0;
p=.0
17]
,
an
d
the
c
ontrib
utio
n
is
ne
gative
(b
=
-
.
45);
w
hic
h
m
eans
that
w
hen
t
he
le
vel
of
the
inter
nal
l
ocus
of
co
ntr
ol
of
t
he
pa
rtic
ip
a
nts
is
increase
d
by
on
e
po
i
nt,
the
ir
academ
ic
pr
oc
rasti
natio
n
will
be
decr
e
ased
by
0.4
5
po
i
nts.
Finall
y,
the
bias
-
c
orr
ect
ed
bootstra
pp
e
d
c
onfide
nce
inte
rv
al
do
es
not
con
ta
in
zer
o
BC
aC
I[
-
3.37,
-
.
18
]
,
wh
ic
h
m
eans
that
cl
assroom
eng
a
gem
ent
f
ully
m
ediat
es
the
li
nk
bet
ween
inter
nal
locus
of
c
ontr
ol
an
d
aca
dem
ic
pr
ocr
a
s
ti
nation.
Suppor
ti
ng
tha
t,
path
c
’
sho
ws
t
hat
IL
OC
did
not
sig
nifi
cantl
y
pr
e
dict
AP
[F(2
,29
9)
=
18.18;
p=.171]
w
hen
con
t
ro
ll
in
g
f
or
CE.
I
n
oth
e
r
w
ords,
i
nter
na
l
locus
of
co
ntr
ol
does
not
pr
e
dict
aca
d
e
m
ic
pr
oc
rasti
na
ti
on
without
bein
g m
ediat
ed
by cl
assroom
en
ga
gem
ent.
Anothe
r
fin
di
ng
of
the
cu
rr
e
nt
analy
sis
wa
s
that
the
cont
ribu
ti
on
of
cl
assroom
eng
a
gem
ent
on
academ
ic
pr
ocr
ast
inati
on
(p
at
h
b
)
is
no
t
sig
nificant
w
he
n
con
t
ro
ll
in
g
f
or
internal
loc
us
of
c
ontr
ol
[
b
=
-
.25,
t
(299)=
-
1.3
6,
p
=.
171].
The
fact
that
cl
a
ssroom
eng
a
gem
ent
does
not
sig
nifica
ntly
pr
e
dict
aca
dem
ic
procr
a
sti
nation wit
hout it
s i
nteracti
on w
it
h i
nter
nal loc
us
of c
on
tr
ol
will
be disc
us
se
d below.
The
hypothesi
s
was
sup
port
ed,
cl
ass
r
oo
m
eng
a
gem
ent
m
ediat
ed
t
he
rel
at
ion
s
hip
betw
een
inte
rn
al
locus
of
c
on
t
r
ol
an
d
academ
ic
procr
a
sti
nation,
wh
e
re
by
hi
gh
IL
OC
pr
e
di
ct
ed
hi
gh
cl
assroom
eng
a
ge
m
ent,
wh
ic
h
s
ubseq
uen
tl
y
pre
dicte
d
lo
w
aca
de
m
ic
pr
oc
rasti
na
ti
on
.
This
re
flect
s
that
cl
assroom
eng
a
gem
ent
exp
l
ai
ne
d
the
relat
ion
s
hip
be
tween
I
LOC
a
nd
aca
dem
ic
p
ro
c
rasti
natio
n,
wh
e
re
by
high
ILO
C
pr
e
dicts
high
cl
assroom
en
ga
gem
ent, w
hic
h
s
ubseq
ue
ntly
d
ec
reased
aca
dem
ic
p
ro
cr
ast
inati
on
.
Find
i
ngs
of
thi
s
stud
y
e
nr
ic
h
the
previ
ou
s
stud
ie
s
in
t
he
si
m
il
ar
con
te
xt
of
Ma
la
ysi
an
edu
cat
io
nal
set
ti
ng
s.
Wh
e
n
Pr
ih
adi
et
al
.
[13]
repor
t
ed
the
m
ediation
r
ole
of
I
LOC
on
the
li
nk
bet
ween
l
earn
e
d
helpless
ness
a
nd
aca
dem
ic
pr
oc
rasti
natio
n,
there
was
sti
ll
a
qu
est
io
n
w
hethe
r
ILO
C
is
a
m
ajo
r
sig
ni
ficant
fac
tor
that
dec
rease
aca
dem
i
c
proc
rasti
nation,
up
to
a
n
e
xtent
wh
e
re
it
can
al
te
r
t
he
influ
e
nce
of
le
arn
e
d
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
In everl
as
ti
ng f
igh
t
against
a
c
ad
e
mic
procra
sti
na
ti
on:
T
he
ro
le
s
of class
r
oom
e
ngage
me
nt
…
(
Yen Li
ng
Hui
)
651
helpless
ness.
This
c
urre
nt
st
ud
y
i
nd
ic
at
es
that
I
LOC,
de
s
pite
it
s
sig
nifi
cant
pr
e
dicti
on,
is
al
s
o
m
ediat
ed
by
cl
assroom
engagem
ent;
in
oth
er words,
stu
d
ents w
it
h
high
inter
nal
loc
us
of
co
ntr
ol
sti
ll
need
t
o
be
e
ngage
d
i
n
their cla
ssr
oom
envir
on
m
ent in or
der to
re
duce thei
r proc
ra
sti
nation be
havi
our.
As
re
ported
by
No
r
db
y
et
al
.
[21]
,
a
nd
Stee
l
and
Kling
sie
c
k
[
3]
,
cl
assroom
eng
agem
ent
is
a
sign
ific
a
nt
fact
or
t
o
re
duce
a
cadem
ic
pr
ocrast
inati
on
.
The
path
c
’
analy
sis
of
t
his
cu
rrent
stu
dy
il
lustrate
d
that
ILO
C
ca
n
only
sign
i
f
ic
antly
pr
edic
t
the
decr
eas
e
of
procra
sti
nation
wh
e
n
the
stude
nts
sho
w
cl
assroom
eng
agem
ent;
witho
ut
cl
assr
oom
eng
a
gem
ent,
ILO
C
do
es
no
t
sign
ific
antly
pr
e
dict
the
de
crease
of pro
c
rasti
nati
on.
The
cu
rr
e
nt
fi
nd
i
ngs
stron
gly
su
ggest
that
the
need
t
o
i
m
pro
ve
stud
e
nts
’
at
ti
tud
e
towa
rd
s
le
ar
ning
env
i
ronm
ent
is
higher
t
han
m
aking
s
u
re
a
ll
the
stud
e
nts
belie
ve
that
t
hey
are
in
c
on
trol
over
t
heir
even
ts
.
Additi
on
al
ly
,
the
cu
rr
e
nt
stu
dy
al
so
sug
ge
sts
that
the
r
ole
of
e
ducat
or
s
ca
n
pote
nt
ia
lly
fu
nctio
n
as
a
pr
e
ve
ntive
m
e
asur
e
to
reduc
e
academ
ic
pr
ocr
ast
inati
on
t
end
e
ncies,
by
i
ncr
easi
ng
t
he
c
la
ssroom
eng
a
gem
ent
[21,
6]
.
I
n
othe
r
w
ords
,
ed
uc
at
or
s
ca
n
act
iv
el
y
enh
a
nce
st
ud
e
nts’
at
ti
tude
towa
rd
s
le
ar
ning
by
guidin
g
an
d
equ
i
pp
i
ng
the
m
with
adap
ti
ve
c
op
i
ng
m
echan
ism
s
they
nee
d
es
pecial
ly
wh
e
n
they
feel
de
f
eat
ed
i
n
their
academ
ic
p
ur
s
uits
[
29
]
i
n ord
er to dec
rease t
he pr
ocr
a
sti
nation be
hav
i
our.
Find
i
ngs
of
thi
s
curre
nt
stu
dy
al
so
s
uggest
t
he
po
ssi
bili
ty
t
o
re
duce
procra
sti
nation
am
on
g
stu
den
t
s
who
unde
rm
ine
pe
rs
on
al
res
pons
i
bili
ty
and
a
bili
ty
in
c
om
pleti
ng
thei
r
ta
s
ks
[11]
by
m
aking
cl
as
sroo
m
env
i
ronm
ent
m
or
e
app
eal
i
ng
to
them
.
In
tur
n,
stu
de
nts
who
feel
ca
pa
ble
of
ha
nd
li
ng
sit
uations
ar
e
m
or
e
li
kely
to
ta
ke
owne
rsh
i
p
an
d
strive
(
high
inter
nal
locus
of
co
ntr
ol),
the
r
efore
proc
rasti
nate
le
ss
when
their
cl
assroom
eng
agem
ent
is
i
m
pro
ved.
As
sugg
e
ste
d
by
th
e
find
i
ng
s
of
t
his
current
stud
y,
act
ive
ef
fort
of
edu
cat
or
s
to
i
m
pr
ov
e
cl
assr
oo
m
eng
agem
ent
m
igh
t
help
to
disco
ura
ge
m
a
la
dap
ti
ve
beh
a
viours
su
c
h
as
eng
a
ging i
n
ac
adem
ic
p
ro
c
ras
ti
nation.
Ap
a
rt
from
that,
on
e
of
t
he
st
rategies
to
reduce
academ
ic
procr
a
sti
nation
is
by
set
ti
ng
s
pecific
goal
s
and
plans
t
o
a
chieve
ta
r
gete
d
goal
s
[
11,
18,
2]
m
igh
t
al
so
be
paire
d
with
the
im
pr
ov
em
ent
of
cl
assroo
m
eng
a
gem
ent,
be
cause
the
goa
l
-
set
ti
ng
act
ivit
ie
s
will
enh
a
nc
e
internal
loc
us
of
c
ontr
o
l
in
the
f
or
m
of
se
ns
e
of
respo
ns
ibil
it
y;
there
fore,
t
he
i
m
pr
ovem
ent
of
cl
ass
r
oom
eng
agem
ent
will
decr
eas
e
the
li
kelih
ood
of
procr
a
sti
nation
a
m
on
g
stu
de
nt
s
wh
o
hav
e
se
t
their
go
al
s.
I
n
oth
e
r
w
ords,
edu
cat
or
s
c
ou
l
d
increase
cl
as
sroom
eng
a
gem
ent
by
getti
ng
s
tu
de
nts
to
set
goal
s
an
d
plans
to
m
ai
ntain
their
goal
-
direct
ed
behavi
our.
As
t
he
current
fin
dings
hav
e
sho
w
n
that
inte
rn
al
locus
of
c
on
t
ro
l
a
nd
cl
assr
oo
m
eng
a
gem
ent
ha
ve
a
si
gnific
ant
po
sit
ive
relat
io
ns
hi
p,
a
nd
t
hat
effor
ts
on
i
ncrea
sing
cl
ass
roo
m
eng
agem
e
nt
will
in
turn
i
nc
rease
inter
nal
locus
of
c
on
tr
ol
an
d
subse
qu
e
ntl
y
red
uce
aca
dem
ic
pr
ocr
as
ti
nation.
Brie
f
ly
,
the
SMART
interve
ntion
i
s
reco
m
m
end
ed
as
a
go
al
set
ti
ng
str
at
egy
m
od
i
fied
f
or
t
he
purpose
of
reducin
g
aca
dem
ic
pr
ocr
ast
i
nation
a
m
on
g coll
e
ge st
ud
e
nts,
a
nd
ha
s b
ee
n fou
nd to be e
ff
ect
ive
[
33
]
)
.
The
sec
onda
ry
fin
ding
of
t
his
curre
nt
stu
dy
that
the
m
ediato
r
va
riable
do
e
s
not
sig
nifica
ntly
pr
e
dic
t
the
outc
om
e
var
ia
ble
w
he
n
con
t
ro
ll
in
g
f
or
t
he
predict
or
va
riable
in
dicat
ed
t
hat
cl
assr
oom
eng
agem
ent
al
on
e
do
e
s
not
con
t
r
ibu
te
to
acade
m
ic
pr
ocr
ast
in
at
ion
with
out
the
existe
nce
of
intern
al
locu
s
of
co
ntr
ol.
I
n
oth
e
r
words,
stu
de
nts
who
are
posit
ively
eng
a
ged
in
their
cl
assr
oom
(h
avin
g
po
sit
ive
te
acher
-
s
tud
e
nt
relat
ionship
s
,
po
sit
i
ve
pee
r
env
i
ronm
ents,
et
c.)
m
igh
t
sti
ll
eng
age
in
academ
ic
pr
oc
rasti
nation
be
ha
vior
if
th
ey
do
not
belie
ve
that
th
ey
are
in
co
ntr
ol
of
t
heir
own
eve
nts
(
ha
vin
g
i
nter
nal
loc
us
of
c
on
tr
ol)
and
vice
ve
rsa
.
Thi
s
fin
ding
i
m
plies
that
the
li
nk
be
tween
inter
na
l
l
ocu
s
of
co
ntro
l
an
d
acade
m
ic
pr
ocr
ast
in
at
ion
su
c
h
as
the
one
s
est
ablished
by
Pr
iha
di
et
al
.
[13]
or
De
rv
i
sh
al
ia
j
an
d
X
he
li
li
[17]
m
ight
sh
ow
diff
e
re
nt
resu
lt
s
w
he
n
the
var
ia
ble of clas
sroom
en
ga
ge
m
ent w
as i
nvol
ved in t
heir
st
udie
s.
4.
CONCL
US
I
O
N
Seve
ral
lim
i
ta
t
ion
s
have
bee
n
identifie
d
a
nd
sh
ould
be
ac
knowle
dge
d
as
well
.
Firstl
y,
so
m
e
of
the
par
ti
ci
pa
nts m
a
y hav
e b
ee
n
m
otivate
d
to
par
t
ic
ipate
si
m
ply
for
the ex
tra c
r
edits and
m
ay
no
t ha
ve
fill
ed i
n
t
he
qu
e
sti
onnaires
carefu
ll
y,
an
d
there
by
re
duci
ng
the
acc
ur
acy
of
their
responses.
Se
condly
,
the
co
ntext
of
env
i
ronm
ental
factor
in
t
his
stud
y
was
li
m
ited
to
cl
assr
oom
eng
agem
ent
on
ly
.
Thi
rd,
m
ajo
rity
of
the
sa
m
ple
m
ajo
re
d
in
so
c
ia
l
sci
ence,
whic
h
cou
l
d
re
s
ult
in
coh
ort
effe
ct
.
Ther
e
by,
it
is
su
gg
est
ed
for
fu
t
ur
e
stu
di
es
to
consi
der
e
xam
ining
ot
her
fac
tors
s
uc
h
as
pa
ren
ta
l
an
d
pe
er
infl
ue
nce
on
acad
em
ic
pr
ocr
ast
inati
on,
because
le
arn
in
g
is
not
lim
it
ed
to
cl
a
ssroom
set
t
ings
on
ly
.
A
nothe
r
co
ns
ide
rati
on
fo
r
fu
t
ur
e
stu
dies
is
to
e
m
plo
y
the
cro
ss
-
sect
io
nal
m
et
ho
d
by
ha
ving
an
e
qual
nu
m
ber
of
unde
rgraduate
stu
den
ts
ac
ross
va
rio
us
m
ajo
rs
su
c
h
as
eng
i
neer
i
ng,
la
w,
an
d
m
edicin
e.
T
his
woul
d
ena
ble
fu
t
ure
stud
ie
s
to
ta
ke
into
acco
un
t
the
natur
e
of
their
courses
,
wh
ic
h
m
a
y
influ
e
nc
e
the
natur
e
of
their
cl
assr
oo
m
set
t
ing
s
and
le
ar
ning
r
el
at
ed
ta
sk
s.
Anothe
r
su
ggest
io
n
ba
s
ed
on
the
la
st
f
ind
in
g
of
this
c
urren
t
stu
dy
is
to
rep
li
cat
e
pr
e
vious
stu
dies
that
involves
l
oc
us
of
con
t
ro
l
an
d
e
xam
ine
cl
assro
om
eng
agem
ent
as
the
m
edi
ation
fact
or
in
orde
r
to
get
f
urt
her
kn
ow
le
dge
to
determ
ine
wh
e
ther
t
her
e
is
a
n
inte
racti
on
e
ff
ect
betwee
n
locus
of
c
ontr
ol
a
nd
cl
assr
oom
eng
a
gem
e
nt
i
n
pr
e
dicti
ng acad
e
m
ic
p
ro
c
rasti
nation.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
201
9
: 6
4
7
-
65
3
652
The
pr
act
ic
al
i
m
pl
ic
at
ion
of
t
his
stu
dy
is
focuse
d
on
t
he
r
ole
of
e
ducat
ors,
w
her
e
by
ef
forts
s
uch
as
pro
vid
in
g
per
s
on
al
iz
ed
fee
db
ack
a
nd
a
dvic
e
can
prom
ote
auto
no
m
y,
wh
i
ch
will
ho
pefu
ll
y
red
uce
aca
dem
ic
procr
a
sti
nation.
In
c
on
cl
us
io
n,
this
stud
y
is
in
li
ne
with
pa
st
find
i
ng
s
wh
i
ch
hi
gh
li
ghts
the
nee
d
f
or
a
m
or
e
eff
ect
ive
a
ppr
oach
t
o
f
os
te
r
cl
assroom
e
ng
a
gem
ent
becau
se
it
play
s
a
cru
ci
al
r
ole
in
ex
plainin
g
t
he
relat
ion
s
hip be
tween i
nter
nal
locus
of c
on
t
rol
an
d ac
ad
em
ic
proc
rasti
natio
n.
ACKN
OWLE
DGE
MENTS
This
st
ud
y
is
a
pa
rt
of
a
res
earch
f
unde
d
by
I
nter
nal
Re
search
G
ra
nt
Schem
e
No
.
17
-
12
-
020
by
Re
search
Man
agem
ent Center,
HEL
P Uni
ve
rsity
Mal
ay
sia
.
REFERE
NCE
S
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aj
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ad
e
m
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rasti
na
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a
t
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rtment
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ce
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mu
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m
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he
proc
ess
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sel
f
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discove
r
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:
Lea
rne
d
helplessnes
s,
self
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eff
icac
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m
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p
erf
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on
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ess
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-
este
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co
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der
gra
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L
ow
self
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eff
i
cac
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reg
ul
at
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edi
c
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roc
rasti
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ti
on
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lf
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eff
i
cac
y:
Tra
c
ing
vic
iou
s
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vir
tuous circles
in
self
-
r
egul
a
te
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arn
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el
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o
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al out
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a
ran
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.
Ye
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roc
rasti
na
ti
on
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l
ea
rn
ed
-
hel
pl
essness
am
ong
unive
rsit
y
s
tude
nts
:
The
m
e
dia
ti
on
eff
ec
t
o
f
int
ern
al
loc
us
o
f
cont
rol
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In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
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8822
In everl
as
ti
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t
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mic
procra
sti
na
ti
on:
T
he
ro
le
s
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r
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nt
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Yen Li
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il
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i
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g
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Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.