Intern
ati
o
n
a
l
Jo
urn
a
l
o
f
E
v
al
ua
ti
o
n
and
Rese
arch in
Education (I
JE
RE)
V
o
l.3
,
No
.3
, Sep
t
em
b
e
r
20
14, pp
. 197
~204
I
S
SN
: 225
2-8
8
2
2
1
97
Jo
urn
a
l
h
o
me
pa
ge
: h
ttp
://iaesjo
u
r
na
l.com/
o
n
lin
e/ind
e
x.ph
p
/
IJERE
Posttraumatic Growth and Resili
ence aft
e
r A P
r
ol
onged W
a
r: A
Study in Baghdad, Iraq
Heyder
K
a
mil Mahdi,
Ku
su
san
t
o Prih
adi,
Sahabud
din
Hashim
School of
Educational Studies, U
n
ivers
iti Sains
Malay
s
ia, Pen
a
n
g
, Malay
s
ia
Article Info
A
B
STRAC
T
Article histo
r
y:
Received
May 23, 2014
Rev
i
sed
Ju
l 20
,
20
14
Accepted Aug 29, 2014
Although traumatic events
ar
e
usually
associated with posttrau
matic stress
disorders (PTSD), man
y
stud
y
h
a
ve
also
repor
ted that exposure
to traumatic
events might also lead to ps
y
c
hol
ogical growth, known as posttraumatic
growth (PTG). The main aim of this stud
y
is to in
vestigat
e wheth
e
r resili
ence
has a significant role
in dev
e
l
oping PTG among individu
als who were
exposed to Iraq
wars in 2003. Baghdad
Tr
auma Histor
y
Screen (
B
THS) and
Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-
RISC) were distributed to 450
postgraduate students from the Univ
ersity of Bahgdad
,
Iraq. After
perform
ing a fac
t
or anal
ysis on the res
ilien
ce sca
l
e, two fac
t
ors of resilien
c
e
can be
inc
l
uded
in the m
e
as
ure
m
ent. Th
e
y
ar
e
nam
e
l
y
“
a
dapt
iv
e cap
ac
it
y,
”
and “
positive r
e
cept
i
on to ch
ang
e
.” Mul
tip
l
e
regr
ession anal
yses
showed that
both fa
ctors of
r
e
silien
c
e
hav
e
si
gnific
a
nt
influen
ce on
PTG.
The
discussion
p
a
r
t
s me
n
t
i
o
ne
d t
h
at
d
e
ve
l
o
pi
ng
r
e
si
li
ence might help th
e
in
dividuals
to
develop PTG after being expos
ed to tr
aumatic events. Future r
e
search an
d
pract
ica
l
im
plica
tion
wer
e
also
su
ggested
at the en
d of th
e p
a
per
.
Keyword:
Ira
q
Po
sttrau
m
a
tic
Prol
o
nge
d war
Resilien
ce
Copyright ©
201
4 Institut
e
o
f
Ad
vanced
Engin
eer
ing and S
c
i
e
nce.
All rights re
se
rve
d
.
Co
rresp
ond
i
ng
Autho
r
:
Kus
u
sa
nto
Pri
h
adi,
Sch
ool
o
f
E
d
u
cat
i
onal
St
udi
e
s
,
Un
i
v
ersiti Sains Malaysia, Pen
a
ng
, Malaysia.
Em
ail: pkditto@gm
a
il.co
m
1.
INTRODUCTION
Po
sitiv
e relatio
n
s
h
i
p
b
e
tween
expo
sure to
trau
m
a
tic ev
en
ts an
d
p
o
s
itiv
e ch
ang
e
s in
life is stu
d
i
ed
and
di
sc
ove
re
d by
m
a
ny
[1]
-
[
6
]
;
i
t
i
s
addr
essed as P
o
st
Traum
a
t
i
c
Gro
w
t
h
(
P
T
G
).
T
h
eo
ret
i
cal
l
y
, t
h
e t
e
r
m
PTG
refers to
th
e po
sitiv
e psych
o
l
og
ical chan
g
e
s resu
lting
fro
m
th
e con
f
lict exp
e
rienced
b
y
an
ind
i
v
i
du
al
who
face
d m
a
jor life crises
or trau
m
a
tic ev
en
ts [7
].
PTG
has
bee
n
di
sco
v
e
r
ed
t
o
be
occ
u
r
r
ed
a
f
t
e
r t
h
e
ex
p
o
s
u
re t
o
se
veral
ki
n
d
s
of
t
r
aum
a
t
i
c
event
s
,
suc
h
as t
e
rro
ri
sm
i
n
ci
dent
s [8]
-
[
1
0]
, wars [
11]
-
[
13]
, nat
u
r
a
l
di
sast
ers [1
4
]
-[1
6]
, an
d sex
u
al
assaul
t
[1
7
]
,[1
8
]
.
Th
us, i
t
i
s
possi
bl
e t
h
at
PTG
occur
r
e
d
am
o
ng
peo
p
l
e
wh
o are ex
pose
d
t
o
prol
on
ge
d wars wi
t
h
seri
es o
f
trau
m
a
tic ev
en
ts, su
ch
as in Iraq
.
I
r
a
q
i
so
ciety has suf
f
e
r
e
d
f
r
om sev
e
r
a
l w
a
r
s
f
o
r
m
o
r
e
th
an
tw
o
d
ecad
e
s; th
u
s
, it h
a
s
b
e
co
m
e
a g
r
ound
fo
r co
nsi
d
era
b
l
e
researc
h
rel
a
t
e
d t
o
po
st
t
r
aum
a
ti
c st
ress di
so
rde
r
(PTS
D),
w
h
i
c
h c
a
n
be c
onsi
d
ere
d
as
a
negative c
h
a
n
ges am
ong indi
viduals afte
r traum
a
tic events. A literature
ga
p
in unde
rstandi
ng
the nat
u
re of
PTG in Iraq a
p
pare
ntly exists because
m
o
st
of studies related to positive
growt
h
after traum
a
t
i
c events were
not
c
o
nd
uct
e
d
i
n
I
r
aq
[
1
9]
.
In searc
h
of t
h
e ca
use t
h
at
might inflict PTG,
m
a
ny
st
udi
es
have
b
e
e
n
c
o
n
d
u
ct
ed
.
M
o
st
o
f
t
h
em
discovere
d
tha
t
survi
v
ors of traum
a
tic
ev
ents rep
o
rted
th
at th
eir PTG
cove
re
d fi
ve fa
ct
ors o
f
t
h
ei
r
l
i
v
es,
n
a
m
e
l
y
,
th
eir relatio
n
s
h
i
p
with
o
t
h
e
r p
e
op
le (relatin
g
to
ot
h
e
rs)
,
perce
p
t
i
o
n
of
t
h
em
sel
v
es (
p
ers
o
nal
st
re
ngt
h)
,
o
u
tlook
o
f
life
(n
ew po
ssib
ilities), sp
iritu
al beliefs (sp
i
r
itu
al
ch
ang
e
), an
d
ap
preciatio
n
o
f
life (ap
p
reciatio
n
o
f
life) [20
]
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
I
J
ERE
Vo
l. 3
,
N
o
. 3
,
Sep
t
emb
e
r
201
4
:
1
97
–
20
4
19
8
The conce
p
t of PTG ha
s ofte
n been c
o
nfused with
the conce
p
t of
resilience
because as m
u
ch as 50%
to
6
0
%
o
f
surv
i
v
ors rep
o
rt
ed
po
sitiv
e ch
ang
e
s after
ex
po
su
re to
t
r
au
m
a
tic ev
en
ts [2
1
]
,[22
]. Sev
e
ral
t
h
eo
ret
i
cal
assum
p
t
i
ons abo
u
t
t
h
e rel
a
t
i
onsh
i
p bet
w
ee
n resi
l
i
e
nce and PT
G ha
ve been
pr
op
ose
d
[
23]
-
[
2
5
]
,
and
th
eoretical d
i
stin
ctio
n
s
b
e
tw
een
PTG
and
resilien
ce
h
a
v
e
b
een
carefu
lly n
o
t
ed
b
y
Ted
e
sch
i
and
Calh
oun
(200
4) [1
5
]
. Th
u
s
, PTG and resilien
ce are two
d
i
fferen
t
b
u
t
in
terrelated
elem
en
ts t
h
at o
c
cu
r arou
nd
an
expos
u
re
to t
r
a
u
m
a
tic expe
riences.
Th
e con
c
ep
t o
f
resilien
ce ex
ceed
s th
e con
c
ep
ts and
v
a
ries d
u
e
to
d
i
fferences in
resilien
c
e p
e
rceiv
e
d
b
y
th
e scien
tifi
c
co
mm
u
n
ity [2
6
]
,[27
].
Accord
i
n
g
l
y, th
e con
cep
t
o
f
resilien
ce is p
e
rh
ap
s
th
e top
i
c th
at is m
o
st
rel
a
t
e
d t
o
ho
w
i
ndi
vi
d
u
al
s
re
cove
r a
n
d
fl
o
u
r
i
s
h a
f
t
e
r
traumatic ev
en
ts.
Prim
aril
y, resi
lien
ce h
a
s
b
e
en
the
factor used by
researc
h
ers in
dealing
wit
h
ea
rly childhood a
n
d adolesce
nce
.
Related
to
th
e
aforem
en
tio
n
e
d
statem
en
ts ab
ou
t re
silien
ce and
PTG, th
e p
r
esen
t st
u
d
y
in
v
e
stig
ates
th
e in
terrelation
s
h
i
p
b
e
tween resilien
ce and
PTG am
o
n
g
Iraq
i
st
u
d
e
n
t
s wh
o were exp
o
s
ed to
t
r
aumatic
events
, es
pecially after the last wars
i
n
2003.
T
h
e occ
u
rre
n
ce of PTG
afte
r exp
o
sure to trau
m
a
tic ev
en
ts is
ex
am
in
ed
, as well as th
e role o
f
resilien
c
e in
i
m
p
o
s
in
g an
d
in
creasing
PTG, wh
ich is fo
llo
wed
by th
e
co
m
p
ariso
n
b
e
tween
i
n
d
i
v
i
duals with
h
i
gh
an
d
l
o
w re
silien
ce in
term
s
o
f
PTG. Th
e aforem
en
tio
n
e
d step
s
were tak
e
n
to
an
swer th
e fo
l
l
o
w
ing
qu
estion
:
Is th
er
e a
n
y significa
nt influence
of resil
i
ence on PTG?
T
h
e
answ
er i
s
nat
i
o
nal
l
y
si
gni
fi
ca
nt
f
o
r
Ira
q,
bec
a
use t
h
e
r
e are
m
a
ny
vi
ct
im
s
of t
h
e wa
rs
wh
o di
d n
o
t
e
xpe
ri
ence
PTG, and the
knowledge
obt
ained ca
n
be used as a
f
oundation to
de
velop resilience a
m
ong Ira
qi students
i
n
order to
stim
ulate the occurre
nce
of PT
G.
In t
h
e c
ont
e
x
t
of t
h
e p
r
ese
n
t
st
udy
, t
h
e
post
-
wa
r s
itu
atio
n
in
Iraq
is co
n
s
id
ered
a trau
matic ev
en
t.
The U.
S. occ
u
pat
i
on
of I
r
a
q
i
n
20
0
3
i
n
d
u
c
e
d al
l
t
y
pes of t
e
rro
ri
sm
and
vi
ol
ence t
h
at
affect
ed
Ira
qi
soci
et
y
[28
]
. Th
e same stu
d
y
lik
ewise reported
that n
u
m
ero
u
s
ci
v
ilian
s
d
i
ed
wh
en
th
ey
were expo
sed
t
o
th
e U.S.
Arm
y
th
at u
s
ed
aircraft, tank
s, and
o
t
h
e
r
weapon
s t
o
k
ill an
y susp
ect
ed
insurgen
ts
who
u
s
ed
im
p
r
ov
ised
expl
osi
v
e
de
vi
ces, s
u
i
c
i
d
e
b
o
m
bs, and
ot
her
ki
nds
o
f
t
r
au
m
a
t
i
c
vi
ol
ence
ha
ve
bee
n
e
x
pos
ed
t
o
m
o
st
of
t
h
e
Ira
qi
s, i
n
cl
u
d
i
n
g
one
o
f
t
h
e a
u
t
h
o
r
s
of
t
h
i
s
pa
per
.
2.
LITERATURES
Po
st Trau
ma
ti
c Gro
w
th
Sev
e
r
a
l stud
ies h
a
ve b
e
en
added
to
t
h
e PTG
b
o
d
y
of
k
now
led
g
e
sin
ce Tedesch
i
and
Calho
u
n
(
1996)
in
trodu
ced PTG
[20
]
. Research
ers on po
sitiv
e
g
r
owth
h
a
ve b
e
g
un to
settle o
n
term
s th
at co
m
p
reh
e
n
s
iv
ely
capt
u
re t
h
e
rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
p
bet
w
een
gr
owt
h
a
n
d t
r
a
u
m
a
, sim
i
l
a
r to
t
h
e ex
am
i
n
atio
n of
p
o
sttrau
m
a
tic g
r
owth
after
a disease, incl
uding ca
ncer [29]-[31
]
,
am
put
at
i
on
[3
2]
,
hear
t
di
sease
[3
3]
-[
35]
,
an
d
brea
st
cance
r [
3
6]
-[
3
8
]
.
On
th
e
o
t
h
e
r han
d
, research
ers h
a
v
e
u
s
ed
v
a
riou
s term
s in
t
h
e literatu
re for th
e po
sitiv
e ch
ang
e
s an
d
identified t
h
e facets of
growt
h
after a
d
versit
y, such a
s
be
ne
fit findi
ng
or
perceiving c
onst
r
ui
ng [21],[39],[40].
Fo
r i
n
stan
ce, th
e term
s u
s
ed
in
clu
d
e
d
thriv
i
n
g
[41
]
,[42
],
po
sitiv
e b
y
-p
rod
u
c
ts [43
]
, adversarial growth [22
]
,
p
o
s
itiv
e p
s
ycho
log
i
cal ch
anges [4
4
]
, and
st
ress-related growth
[4
5
]-[47
].
Seve
ral
fact
ors
have bee
n
l
i
n
ked t
o
PT
G, a
s
i
t
i
s
di
scover
e
d t
h
at
t
h
ey
all
o
we
d PTG m
o
re l
i
k
el
y
t
o
o
ccur, su
ch
as o
p
tim
is
m [2
1], p
o
s
itiv
e rei
n
terp
retation
[45
]
, g
e
n
d
e
r [21],[48
], an
d
accep
tan
ce co
p
i
ng
[4
9
]
.
PTG i
s
al
s
o
l
i
n
ked t
o
m
a
ny
ot
her t
h
em
es, such as e
xpe
ri
en
ce of m
eani
n
g
f
ul
en
gagem
e
nt
and a
p
preci
at
i
on
o
f
l
i
f
e [5
0]
, a
n
d
negat
i
v
e
post
-
t
r
aum
a
effect
s
[5]
.
Acc
o
r
d
i
n
g
l
y
,
sim
i
l
a
r resul
t
s
ha
ve
bee
n
re
po
rt
ed
f
r
om
ot
he
r
st
udi
es a
b
out
m
a
ny
t
y
pes o
f
t
r
aum
a
t
i
c
event
s
, s
u
c
h
as
t
e
rr
ori
s
m
i
n
ci
de
nt
s [
8
]
-
[
1
0
]
,
w
a
rs
[1
1]
-[
1
3
]
,
nat
u
ral
di
sast
ers
[
14]
-
[
16]
,
an
d se
x
u
al
assaul
t
[1
7]
-[
1
8
]
.
Resilien
ce
Resilien
ce refers to ad
ap
tabilit
y, h
a
rd
in
ess, and
i
n
v
i
n
c
ibilit
y [51
]
-[5
3
]
. A sp
ecific
defin
itio
n or
d
e
scri
p
tio
n
of
resilien
ce and
i
t
s o
p
e
ratio
n
and
m
easu
r
e of
its con
s
tru
c
ts k
e
y are lack
ing
[5
3
]
. Lazaru
s (2
004
)
e
m
p
h
a
sized the im
p
o
r
tan
ce
o
f
resilien
c
e
with
reg
a
rd
to th
e ab
ility o
f
p
e
o
p
l
e to
overco
m
e ad
v
e
rsity an
d
suf
f
eri
n
g
o
r
di
f
f
i
c
ul
t
y
and
t
o
a
d
apt
t
o
an
d
fac
e
cha
nges
,
t
h
u
s
hel
p
i
n
g
i
n
di
v
i
dual
s
ove
rc
o
m
e t
h
e pres
su
r
e
s an
d
th
reats in th
e fu
ture [54
]
.
Nev
e
rth
e
less, so
m
e
d
e
fin
ition
s
o
f
resilien
c
e
cam
e
clo
s
er to
th
e
d
e
fin
itio
n
o
f
PTG.
Fo
r i
n
stan
ce,
Masten (2001) descri
bed
resi
lience as the success
f
ul
ada
p
tation or
optimal deve
lopm
ental outcom
e
s despite
exp
o
s
u
re t
o
en
vi
r
onm
ent
a
l
t
h
reat
s or a
d
vers
i
t
y
aft
e
r a cons
i
d
era
b
l
e
st
ru
gg
l
e
[55]
.
Hen
d
e
r
so
n (
2
00
7)
de
fi
ne
d
resilien
ce as t
h
e ab
ility to
b
oun
ce
b
ack
fro
m
ad
v
e
rsit
y [56
]
.
Alm
e
d
o
m
an
d Glan
don
(20
07)
clarified
resilien
ce as th
e own
e
rsh
i
p
o
f
selectiv
e streng
th
s to
h
e
lp
in
d
i
v
i
du
als su
rv
iv
e
d
e
sp
it
e th
eir ex
po
sure to
stressfu
l
and
d
i
fficu
lt situ
atio
n
s
[5
7
]
. Zau
t
ra (2
009
)
d
i
v
i
d
e
d
resilien
c
e in
to
two
p
a
rts, with
o
n
e
sho
w
i
n
g
resilien
ce as th
e ab
ility o
f
in
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
ls to
d
e
al with
ad
v
e
rsity an
d
reco
v
e
r,
an
d
th
e
o
t
h
e
r d
e
scri
b
i
ng
resi
lien
c
e
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Po
sttrauma
tic Gro
w
t
h
a
n
d
Resilien
ce
a
fter
A Pro
l
o
n
g
e
d
War .... (Heyd
e
r Ka
mil Mah
d
i
)
19
9
as th
e ab
ility t
o
con
tinu
a
lly ach
iev
e
g
o
a
ls
an
d
p
r
og
ress to
ward
a po
sitiv
e fu
ture d
e
spite p
r
essures an
d
t
h
e
ability to cope
effectively
when
faced with a
dve
rsity [58].
Distin
ctio
n b
e
t
w
een
PTG
an
d Resilien
c
e
Distin
ctio
n
b
e
t
w
een
PTG
and
resilien
ce was
stu
d
i
ed
on
l
y
b
y
sev
e
ral research
ers, and
th
e stud
ies
d
a
ted
b
a
ck
t
o
m
o
re th
an
10
years b
e
fo
re t
h
is p
a
p
e
r
is written
.
Ted
e
sch
i
an
d Calho
u
n
(2
004
) carefu
l
l
y
n
o
t
ed
th
e d
i
fferen
ce b
e
tween
PTG an
d
resilien
ce th
ro
ugh
th
eoretical d
i
stin
ctio
n
s
[1
5
]
. Ind
i
v
i
d
u
a
ls are
d
e
scrib
e
d
as
resilien
t
if th
ey h
a
v
e
th
e ab
i
lity
to
th
riv
e
alth
o
ugh
immersed
in
ex
trem
ely stressfu
l
and
d
i
fficu
lt situatio
n
s
,
su
ch
as
p
o
v
e
rty an
d
abu
s
e.
Resilien
ce h
a
s o
f
ten
b
een
i
n
v
e
stig
ated
i
n
p
opu
latio
n
s
wi
th
h
i
g
h
-risk
ch
ild
ren
g
r
o
w
i
n
g
up
in ad
v
e
rse co
m
m
u
n
ities;
resili
en
t ch
ild
ren
d
e
m
o
n
s
trated
less d
e
trim
en
tal
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
en
tal effects
t
h
an ot
he
rs [
5
9
]
.
Accord
ing
l
y, Harv
ey (2
007
) ex
am
in
ed
th
e resilie
n
ce amo
n
g
ad
u
lts and
exp
l
ain
e
d
the d
i
fference
b
e
tween
resilien
ce and
recov
e
ry fro
m
trau
m
a
tic ev
en
ts a
n
d
crises [60
]
. Reco
v
e
ry o
c
cu
rs
wh
en
an
ind
i
v
i
d
u
a
l,
who
is in
itially th
rown
off
b
a
lan
ce t
h
ro
ugh
a trau
m
a
t
i
c
ev
en
t,
can
retu
rn
to
h
i
s/h
e
r p
r
e-trau
m
a
lev
e
ls
of
perform
a
nce after the e
v
e
n
t.
Recove
ry like
w
ise
occurs
w
h
en
an
i
n
di
vi
d
u
al
i
s
uns
cathe
d
by a tra
u
m
a
and can
use his/he
r
re
s
o
urces
t
o
deal with
s
t
r
e
s
s
f
u
l
ev
e
n
ts a
n
d
cr
is
es
.
Thus, PTG and resilience are diffe
re
nt
in two im
portant aspects. First,
a facet of resilience is that an
in
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
h
a
s th
e ab
ility to
p
r
eserv
e
h
i
s/her in
itial lev
e
l
o
f
p
e
rform
a
n
ce after th
e trau
m
a
. In
co
n
t
rast, an
i
ndi
vi
dual
w
h
o
has PTG ex
ce
eds t
h
e l
e
vel
o
f
pre
-
t
r
a
u
m
a
p
e
rf
orm
a
nce i
n
at
l
east
one fact
or o
f
PTG
I
. S
econ
d
,
a resilien
t
ind
i
v
i
du
al has th
e
ab
ility to
recov
e
r fro
m
a
d
v
e
rsity an
d
st
ress
with
ou
t
h
i
gh
l
e
v
e
ls
o
f
stru
ggle with
trau
m
a
tic ev
en
ts, alth
oug
h stru
gg
le
with
trau
m
a
t
i
c ev
en
ts
is i
m
p
o
r
tan
t
an
d cen
t
r
al to PTG. Distress an
d the
crum
bl
i
ng
of
t
h
e c
o
re
ass
u
m
p
t
i
o
n
s
of a
n
i
n
di
vi
d
u
al
a
r
e
ne
cessary
t
o
b
u
i
l
d
new
an
d
st
ro
nge
r
fo
u
ndat
i
o
ns.
Rela
tio
n
s
h
i
p
between
PTG an
d
resilien
c
e
As m
e
n
tio
n
e
d
in
th
e aforem
e
n
tio
n
e
d
su
b
s
ectio
n
s
, bo
t
h
PTG and
resilience refer to
constru
c
ts th
at
resu
lt in
po
sit
i
v
e
ad
ap
tatio
n after an
ind
i
v
i
du
al ex
p
e
rien
ced
a trau
m
a
tic ev
en
t. Howev
e
r, th
e literatu
re
i
ndi
cat
ed
seve
r
a
l
cont
ro
ver
s
i
a
l
assum
p
t
i
ons
r
e
gar
d
i
n
g t
h
e re
l
a
t
i
onshi
p
bet
w
een
t
h
e t
w
o
c
onst
r
uct
s
. M
o
r
e
ove
r,
PTG
and
resilien
ce
h
a
v
e
been tak
e
n as sim
i
l
a
r to on
e ano
t
her [8
].
On t
h
e ot
her
h
a
nd
,
W
e
st
p
h
al
and B
ona
n
n
o
(
2
0
0
7
)
ob
ject
e
d
t
o
t
h
e p
r
evi
o
u
s
not
i
o
n a
nd s
u
gge
st
ed t
h
at
PTG an
d
resilien
ce shou
ld
b
e
v
i
ewed
as two in
d
e
p
e
nd
en
t
co
n
s
t
r
u
c
ts [25
]
. Th
ey lik
ewise
argu
ed
th
at resilien
t
i
ndi
vi
dual
s
a
r
e
hi
g
h
l
y
unl
i
k
el
y
t
o
enga
ge i
n
t
h
e t
y
pe o
f
m
e
ani
n
g-m
a
ki
ng t
o
be
ha
vi
o
r
s t
h
a
t
are associ
at
ed
wi
t
h
PTG
beca
use
t
h
ey
d
o
n
o
t
s
t
ru
ggl
e t
o
t
h
e
sam
e
ext
e
nt
as ot
her
,
m
o
re t
r
aum
a
t
i
zed i
ndi
vi
d
u
al
s
wo
ul
d
.
Th
erefo
r
e, trau
m
a
su
rv
ivo
r
s who
are h
i
ghly resilien
t
wi
ll n
o
t
en
g
a
g
e
in
th
e co
gn
itiv
e p
r
o
cessi
n
g
th
at is
necessa
ry for PTG t
o
occur
[25].
Relatio
n
s
h
i
p
b
e
tween
resilien
ce
an
d
PTG is ex
t
r
em
el
y i
m
p
o
r
tan
t
an
d
cou
l
d
h
a
ve sig
n
i
fican
t
im
pl
i
cat
i
ons fo
r pre
v
e
n
t
i
v
e i
n
t
e
rve
n
t
i
o
ns an
d t
r
aum
a
c
ounsel
i
ng [
6
1]
. Ho
we
ver
,
m
a
ny
researche
r
s ha
ve fa
i
l
e
d
to
d
i
stin
gu
ish
b
e
tween
ind
i
v
i
d
u
a
ls
with
lo
w,
m
o
d
e
rate
,
o
r
h
i
g
h
resilien
c
e an
d
th
ei
r rel
a
tio
n
s
h
i
p
with PTG.
Steele and Kuban
(2011) exam
ined
the relations
hip bet
w
een resilience
and P
T
G am
ong resilient children
who
in
itially
b
e
n
e
fitted
from th
e su
p
port o
f
th
eir fam
i
l
i
es o
r
o
t
hers,
an
d
allowed
trau
m
a
t
i
zed
ch
ild
ren
t
o
b
e
n
e
fit b
y
tellin
g th
eir story ab
ou
t th
e trau
ma [6
2
]
.
Th
e
research find
i
n
g
s
in
d
i
cated th
at
resilien
t
ch
ild
ren
who
b
e
n
e
fitted
from
rep
r
essiv
e
co
p
i
n
g
preferred
to fo
cu
s
on
th
e presen
t and
co
nstru
c
t
their trau
m
a
n
a
rrativ
es
wi
t
h
i
n
a ne
w c
ont
e
x
t
u
al
f
r
am
ewo
r
k t
o
hel
p
adul
t
s
ad
dre
ss t
h
e cri
t
i
cal
com
ponent
s o
f
t
r
aum
a
care,
m
a
ki
n
g
i
t
m
o
re
m
a
n
a
g
e
ab
le fo
r adu
lts,
an
d thu
s
resu
lt in
PTG.
Anothe
r com
p
licated area of
research t
h
at is asso
ciated wit
h
the com
p
lex relations
hip
be
tween PT
G
an
d
resilien
ce
is th
at o
f
reso
l
u
ten
e
ss. Th
e relatio
n
s
h
i
p
b
e
t
w
een
reso
lu
teness and
resilien
ce is un
clear. Often,
reso
l
u
ten
e
ss is
eith
er eq
u
a
ted
with
re
silien
ce
an
d v
i
ewed as
o
n
e
of th
e fact
o
r
s of resilien
ce [63
]
,
o
r
con
s
i
d
ered
an
ind
e
p
e
n
d
e
nt co
nstruct [15
]
. St
u
d
i
es on reso
lu
ten
e
ss
g
e
n
e
rally in
d
i
cate th
at th
is p
e
rson
ality trait is
p
o
s
itiv
ely associated
with PTG [22
]
.
Th
e resu
lts illu
strated
t
h
at th
e und
erstan
d
i
n
g
of
th
e relatio
n
s
h
i
p
b
e
tween
resilien
ce an
d
PTG i
s
li
mited
,
and
no
em
p
i
rical research
t
h
us far h
a
s attem
p
ted
to
sh
ed
m
o
re lig
h
t
o
n
t
h
is asso
ciatio
n. Th
e
co
m
p
lex
ity o
f
th
is situ
atio
n
pro
m
p
t
s a
m
o
re in
-d
ep
th
i
n
v
e
stig
atio
n
on
this to
p
i
c. To
the k
n
o
w
ledg
e of the
research
er, th
is stud
y is th
e
first to
attem
p
t to
prov
id
e an in
sig
h
t
in
t
o
t
h
e top
i
c.
The
o
ret
i
c
al
Fr
amew
ork
Th
eo
retically, resilien
ce in
an in
d
i
v
i
du
al contrib
u
t
es to
p
o
s
i
tiv
e ch
ang
e
s after a trau
m
a
t
i
c
ev
en
t. For
in
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
ls
who
h
a
v
e
b
e
en
ex
po
sed
to
traumatic
ev
en
ts,
p
o
s
itiv
e ch
anges d
u
e
to
ad
equ
a
te resilien
c
e
m
o
stly
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
I
J
ERE
Vo
l. 3
,
N
o
. 3
,
Sep
t
emb
e
r
201
4
:
1
97
–
20
4
20
0
occurre
d i
n
t
h
e area
of inte
rpers
o
nal relations
hi
p, sel
f
-p
ercep
tion
,
sp
iritu
al v
a
l
u
es, and
p
e
rsp
ectiv
e to
ward
life. Fu
rt
h
e
rm
o
r
e, b
o
t
h
PTG and
resilien
ce req
u
i
re so
cial su
ppo
rt. Resilien
ce h
a
s a sig
n
i
fican
t
ro
le in
adapt
a
t
i
o
n a
n
d
t
r
ans
f
o
r
m
a
ti
on,
w
h
i
c
h ca
n
be t
r
an
slated as
PT
G in the c
o
ntext of this st
udy.
There
f
ore, t
h
e
t
h
eo
ry
of
PT
G
by
Tedesc
hi
a
nd C
a
l
h
o
u
n
(
2
00
4
)
i
s
use
d
a
s
t
h
e basi
s
fo
r
t
h
e p
r
esent
researc
h
because the elem
ents they
m
e
ntio
ned, such as
managem
e
nt of
em
otional distress, self-disclosure
,
social support, life na
rrative, and e
n
duri
ng
distress
[15], are
related to t
h
e elements of
resi
lience
[54
]
,[56
],[6
4
]
.
Mo
reo
v
e
r, a
person
ality trait
su
ch
as
reso
l
u
ten
e
ss was d
i
sco
v
e
red
to
b
e
p
o
s
itiv
ely associated
with
PTG and
resilien
ce [22
]
.
3.
R
E
SEARC
H M
ETHOD
Sa
m
p
l
e
s
4
5
0
Und
e
rgrad
u
a
te st
u
d
e
n
t
s who
are stud
yin
g
at science and
hu
m
a
n
ities co
lleg
e
s at Bag
h
d
a
d
Uni
v
ersity in a
cadem
ic y
ear
2
013
–20
14
w
e
r
e
selected
as t
h
e
p
opu
l
a
t
i
on of
t
h
e prese
n
t
st
udy
. Fo
u
r
c
o
l
l
e
ges
were ran
d
o
m
ly
selected
fro
m
th
e 24 co
lleg
e
s in
t
h
e
Un
i
v
ersity o
f
Bag
h
d
a
d, n
a
m
e
ly, th
e
Co
lleg
e
o
f
Po
litica
l
Scien
ce (1
,0
61
stu
d
e
n
t
s), Co
lleg
e
of
Media (
1
,3
66
studen
t
s)
, Co
lleg
e
o
f
Scien
ce (2
,3
09
stud
en
ts)
,
and
C
o
l
l
e
ge of
Vet
e
ri
nary
M
e
di
ci
ne (4
4
7
st
ud
en
t
s
). Acc
o
r
d
ing to a table by Krejcie an
d Morgan (1970), at least
37
0 s
a
m
p
l
e
s sh
oul
d
be e
x
t
r
act
ed t
o
re
pre
s
ent
t
h
e t
o
t
a
l
num
ber
of
st
u
d
ent
s
,
whi
c
h i
s
5,
1
8
3
.
I
n
s
t
ru
m
e
n
t
s
I
n
or
d
e
r
to
id
en
tif
y th
e pr
e
s
en
c
e
o
f
tr
au
ma
t
i
c
e
v
en
ts
a
m
o
n
g
th
e s
t
ud
e
n
ts
,
an
A
r
ab
ic
an
d En
g
lish
versi
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
B
a
gh
da
d T
r
au
m
a
Hi
st
ory
Sc
reen
(B
T
H
S)
(Jaber, 2012) was
selected
as
the appropriate
scale
for th
e Iraq
i
en
v
i
ron
m
en
t [6
6
]
. Perm
issio
n
to
e
m
p
l
o
y
th
e in
stru
m
e
n
t
in
th
e cu
rren
t stud
y was ob
tain
ed
fro
m
the author
of t
h
e scale. The s
cale consisted
of a series
of traum
a
tic events (e.g., ch
em
ica
l
attack, car bom
b
ing,
an
d
attem
p
t to
k
ill) th
at were ex
p
e
rien
ced b
y
th
e Iraq
i
so
ciety as a resu
lt o
f
prev
io
u
s
wars. Th
e BTHS
include
d
20 traum
a
tic event
rows a
n
d six
response
col
u
mn
s for each
even
t, in
wh
ich
t
h
e
p
a
rticip
an
ts were
aske
d to indicate if they
were
expose
d
personally
and/
or
i
n
cl
ose
pr
oxi
m
i
ty
t
o
t
r
a
u
m
a
ti
c event
s
.
Post
t
r
a
u
m
a
t
i
c
Gr
owt
h
In
ve
nt
ory
(PT
G
I
)
,
T
e
desc
hi
& C
a
l
h
o
u
n
(1
9
9
6
)
was a
d
opt
e
d
t
o
asse
ss t
h
e
p
o
s
itiv
e gro
w
t
h
reported
b
y
in
d
i
v
i
du
als who
were ex
po
sed
to
trau
m
a
tic
ev
en
ts [20
]
. The PTGI h
a
s b
e
en
u
s
ed
in
sev
e
ral studies. Th
is scale was u
s
ed
to
id
en
tify th
e positiv
e ch
ang
e
s th
at resu
lted
fro
m
trau
m
a
t
i
c
ev
en
ts
[
1
8
]
,[67
],[6
8
]
.
Per
m
issio
n
f
r
om
th
e au
tho
r
s
to
tr
anslate th
is scale in
to
t
h
e A
r
ab
ic languag
e
an
d
u
s
e it in
th
e
cu
rren
t stud
y was ob
tain
ed
an
d
a p
ilo
t stu
d
y
was co
nducted for the
purpose
of
the p
r
esen
t stu
dy, it
d
e
m
o
n
s
trated
h
i
gh
in
tern
al co
n
s
isten
c
y (al
p
h
a
= 0.90)
an
d
h
i
g
h
test
–
r
etest reliab
ility
(0.71).
After
a factor
analysis on the
PTGI scale, t
w
o
factors
of PTGI are cons
idere
d
to be ta
ken
i
n
th
is stud
y. Th
e
first facto
r
is
called
“stren
g
t
h
o
f
ego
,
” and
th
e seco
nd
fact
o
r
is called
“positiv
e relatio
n
s
h
i
p
with
o
t
h
e
rs.”
In ord
e
r t
o
co
llect th
e resilien
ce
d
a
ta, C
o
nn
or–
D
av
id
son
Resilien
ce Scale (CD-RISC
)
(Con
n
e
r
&
Davi
ds
on
, 2
0
0
3
)
has bee
n
a
d
apt
e
d f
o
r t
h
i
s
st
udy
[6
9]
. T
h
e C
D
-R
ISC
has bee
n
use
d
by
several
st
udi
es t
o
assess th
e lev
e
ls o
f
resilien
c
e o
f
ind
i
v
i
du
als [13
]
,[70
]. It
has a h
i
g
h
i
n
tern
al con
s
isten
c
y (alp
h
a
=
0
.
89
) and
m
o
d
e
rate test–
r
etest reliab
ilit
y (0
.87). After p
e
rfo
r
m
i
n
g
a facto
r
an
alysis o
n
th
e resilience scale, two
facto
r
s
o
f
resilien
ce can
b
e
in
clud
ed
in
t
h
e m
eas
u
r
em
en
t. Th
ey
are
n
a
m
e
l
y
“ad
ap
tiv
e cap
acity,” an
d
“p
ositiv
e
reception t
o
c
h
ange
.”
4.
R
E
SU
LTS AN
D ANA
LY
SIS
Mu
ltip
le reg
r
essio
n
an
alysis
is p
e
rfo
r
m
e
d
to
test th
e ab
ov
e h
ypo
th
esis. Th
e resu
lts are sho
w
n
in
Tabl
es 1, 2
a
n
d
3.
Tab
l
e
1
.
M
o
d
e
l
su
mm
ary o
f
resilien
ce on
PTG
M
odel
R
R Squar
e
Adjusted R Squar
e
Std. Error of the E
s
ti
m
a
te
1
.
551
a
.
304
.
301
15.
234
41
a. Pr
edictors: (Constant), 'adaptive ca
pacity' and
'positive reception to chan
ge' f
actors of
resilience.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Po
sttrauma
tic Gro
w
t
h
a
n
d
Resilien
ce
a
fter
A Pro
l
o
n
g
e
d
War .... (Heyd
e
r Ka
mil Mah
d
i
)
20
1
Tab
l
e 2
.
Influ
e
n
ce o
f
resilien
c
e
on
PTG
Model
Su
m
of Sq
uares
Df
Mean Square
F
Sig.
1
Regr
ession
4532
7.
553
2
2266
3.
776
97.
652
.
000
b
Residual
1037
42.
93
8
447
232.
08
7
Total
1490
70.
49
1
449
a.
Dependent Var
i
able: PT
G
b. Predictors:
(Constant), 'adaptive ca
pacity' and
'positive reception to chan
ge' f
actors of
resilience.
Table 3.
C
o
effi
cients
of resilience factors
'a
daptive ca
pacity' and
positive
receptive t
o
c
h
a
nge
Model
Unstandardi
z
ed
Coefficie
n
ts
Standardi
z
ed
Co
efficie
n
ts
t
Sig.
B
Std. Er
ror
Beta
1
(
C
onstant)
27.
54
2.
87
9.
57
0.
000
'adaptive capacity'
.
593
.
063
.
455
9.
46
0.
000
positive receptive to change
.
562
.
186
.
145
3.
01
0.
003
a.
Dependent Var
i
able: PT
G
Giv
e
n
th
at b
o
t
h
factors of resilien
ce sig
n
i
fi
can
tly
affect th
e PTG o
f
Iraq
i
stu
d
e
n
t
s who
are ex
po
sed
to
trau
m
a
tic
ev
en
ts,
it
can
b
e
seen
t
h
at
a p
e
rso
n
who
d
e
v
e
lo
p
s
a strong
er resilien
ce
lik
ewise d
e
v
e
l
o
ps a
h
i
g
h
e
r
t
e
nde
ncy
t
o
ex
peri
e
n
ce P
T
G
(ad
j
ust
e
d
R
s
q
uare
=
0.
30
4,
p =
0
.
0
0
0
, B
= 0.
4
5
5
,
a
n
d
β
=
0.
55
1
a
). I
n
ot
he
r
words,
resilience sign
ifican
tly p
r
ed
icts PTG
a
m
o
n
g
th
e
samp
les
o
f
t
h
is stud
y.Th
e fi
n
d
i
n
g
s lik
ewise im
p
l
y th
at
p
o
s
sessing
th
e
two
fact
o
r
s of
resilien
ce (ad
a
p
tiv
e cap
ac
ity an
d
po
sitiv
e relatio
n
s
h
i
p
with o
t
h
e
rs) can
increase
th
e po
ssi
b
ility for an
ind
i
v
i
d
u
al to
d
e
v
e
l
o
p PTG after exp
e
rien
cin
g
a traumatic ev
en
t.
Ted
e
sch
i
and
Calh
ou
n
(
1995
)
stated
t
h
at PTG
w
o
u
l
d
n
o
t
o
ccur
if
t
h
e p
e
r
s
o
n
shou
ld
ex
h
i
b
i
t
resilien
ce an
d
retu
rn
to
a h
ealth
y fun
c
tion
i
ng
b
e
fo
re m
o
v
i
ng
to
ward
a h
i
gh
l
y
effectiv
e su
bsequ
e
n
t
fu
n
c
ti
o
n
i
n
g
[24
]
. Th
ey b
e
l
i
ev
ed
t
h
at th
e
p
o
s
itiv
e
resu
lts o
f
t
r
au
m
a
tic
ev
en
ts
d
e
p
e
nd
ed
on
th
e com
b
in
atio
n
o
f
sev
e
ral
v
a
riab
les, in
cl
u
d
i
n
g
resilien
c
e. In
o
t
h
e
r word
s, resilien
ce
sti
m
u
l
ates PT
G and
h
e
l
p
ind
i
v
i
du
als ret
u
rn
to
a
norm
al life after experie
n
cing a traum
a
tic e
v
ent.
Thes
e a
s
sum
p
t
i
ons ha
v
e
been c
o
nfi
r
m
e
d by
t
h
e
fi
n
d
i
ngs
o
f
th
is stud
y.
Ho
we
ver
,
Ted
e
schi
an
d C
a
l
h
o
u
n
(
2
0
0
4
) y
i
el
ded di
f
f
ere
n
t
resul
t
s
. Des
p
i
t
e
agreei
ng t
h
at
PTG wa
s
d
i
fferen
t
fro
m
resilien
ce, th
ey
repo
rted
th
at
a resilien
t
in
d
i
v
i
du
al wo
u
l
d
b
e
un
lik
ely to
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
a si
g
n
ifican
t
d
e
gree of PTG [15
]
. A
p
e
rson
with
PTG ten
d
s
t
o
exh
i
b
it
resilien
c
y wh
en
facing
trau
matic ev
en
ts b
e
cau
s
e
PTG
resu
lts fro
m
th
e strug
g
l
es with
adv
e
rsity o
f
an
in
d
i
vid
u
a
l. Th
erefo
r
e,
resilien
ce do
es n
o
t
req
u
i
re
PTG
because suc
h
conce
p
t refe
rs to the su
ccess
f
ul return of an individual to
a baseline perform
ance or to
his/he
r
success
f
ul a
d
a
p
tation after going thro
ugh c
h
allengi
ng a
n
d difficult circ
um
s
t
ances. Nonetheless, Te
des
c
hi a
nd
Calh
ou
n arg
u
e
d
th
at a conn
ectio
n
m
i
g
h
t
fo
rm
b
e
tw
een
PTG an
d resilien
c
e d
e
sp
ite th
eir
d
i
fferen
ces.
Fi
ndi
ng
s of t
h
i
s
st
udy
ha
ve b
een su
pp
o
r
t
e
d
by
St
eel
e and Ku
ba
n (2
0
1
1
)
,
wh
o ha
d i
nve
st
i
g
at
ed t
h
e
in
flu
e
n
ce or role o
f
resilien
c
e o
n
PTG am
o
n
g
trau
m
a
tized
resilien
t
ch
ild
ren
and
th
e
b
e
n
e
fit o
f
n
a
rrati
n
g
th
eir
trau
m
a
tic ex
p
e
rien
ces
[62
]
. Th
ey rep
o
rted that resilien
t
ch
ild
ren
b
e
n
e
fitted fro
m
rep
r
essi
ve cop
i
ng
,
p
r
eferred
to
fo
cu
s
o
n
the p
r
esen
t, and
co
nstru
c
ted
their trau
m
a
n
a
rrativ
e with
in
a n
e
w co
n
t
ex
tual fram
e
wo
rk,
wh
ich
hel
p
e
d
a
dul
t
s
a
d
d
r
ess t
h
e c
r
i
t
i
cal
com
pone
nt
s o
f
t
r
a
u
m
a
care an
d ca
use
d
t
h
ese chi
l
d
ren
t
o
devel
o
p
PT
G.
5.
CO
NCL
USI
O
N
Fi
ndi
ng
s o
f
t
h
e
prese
n
t
st
u
d
y
can enl
i
g
ht
en s
t
akeh
ol
de
rs i
n
devel
opi
ng
Ira
q. T
h
i
s
st
u
d
y
can l
i
k
ewi
s
e
h
e
lp
st
ud
en
ts
who
h
a
v
e
b
een exp
o
s
ed
t
o
trau
m
a
t
i
c ev
en
ts t
o
im
p
r
ov
e th
ei
r resilien
c
e and
PTG, wh
ich
in
turn
can im
prove their academ
ic pe
rform
a
nce and s
o
cial life.
Furt
herm
ore
M
i
ni
st
ry
of
Hi
ghe
r E
d
ucat
i
o
n a
n
d
Sci
e
nt
i
f
i
c
R
e
searc
h
, t
h
e M
i
ni
st
ry
o
f
Ed
ucat
i
o
n
,
a
n
d
the Ministry of Health and Social Ca
re of Iraq are e
n
couraged to esta
b
lish
cen
ters, especially
with
in
h
ealth
cen
ters, th
at sp
ecialize in
d
e
v
e
lop
i
ng
th
e resilien
ce o
f
ind
i
v
i
du
als to
red
u
ce th
e
n
u
m
b
e
r o
f
p
e
op
le wh
o
are
su
fferi
n
g fro
m
PTSD.
Th
e
fin
d
i
ng
s li
k
e
wi
se sugg
est th
at th
e qu
ality an
d th
e
qu
an
tity o
f
m
e
n
t
al health
serv
ices m
u
st
b
e
im
p
r
ov
ed
t
o
d
e
v
e
l
o
p th
e
resilien
ce of
st
u
d
e
n
t
s.
Stud
ents with
h
i
gh
lev
e
ls of
resilience can
achieve
better academ
ic perform
a
nce and
less cha
n
ces
of
devel
opi
ng PTSD or ot
he
r
negative
effects of
trau
m
a
tic ev
en
ts.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
I
J
ERE
Vo
l. 3
,
N
o
. 3
,
Sep
t
emb
e
r
201
4
:
1
97
–
20
4
20
2
6.
PRA
C
TI
CAL
IMPLI
C
ATI
O
NS
Th
is stud
y do
es no
t in
v
e
stig
ate th
e o
t
h
e
r
v
a
ri
ab
les
that
ca
n affect
the occ
u
rre
nce of
PTG.
More
ove
r,
th
e sco
p
e
of th
i
s
stud
y is limit
ed
to stud
en
ts fro
m
Iraq
i
un
iversities. Fu
tu
re stu
d
i
es m
u
st em
p
l
o
y
larg
er sa
m
p
le
si
zes fr
om
br
o
a
der
soci
al
set
t
i
ngs
t
o
ge
nerat
e
ne
w
fi
n
d
i
n
gs.
Future st
udies
m
u
st likewis
e adopt
othe
r resear
c
h
m
e
thods a
n
d use
the sam
e
sa
mple size and
ch
aracteristics to
exp
l
ore
furth
e
r th
e PTG and
resilien
c
e of
Iraq
i
st
ud
en
ts. Th
e
d
e
v
e
lop
m
en
t o
f
train
i
ng
p
r
og
ram
s
fo
r
resilien
ce th
at
can
trigg
e
r an
d
m
a
x
i
m
i
ze
PTG m
u
st b
e
in
v
e
stig
ated
as well. Th
e
cu
ltu
ral
d
i
fferen
ces in rep
o
rting
PTG
p
r
ov
id
e an
i
n
terestin
g top
i
c
that
m
u
st b
e
i
n
v
e
stig
ated
furth
e
r in
fu
t
u
re
stud
ies.
The i
n
t
e
r-
ge
nd
er di
ffe
rence
s
i
n
t
e
rm
s of P
T
G m
u
st
b
e
urgen
tly ex
am
in
e
d
.
Altho
ugh
the find
ing
s
of
t
h
i
s
st
udy
i
ndi
cat
e si
gni
fi
can
t
di
ffere
nces b
e
t
w
een m
a
l
e
s
and fem
a
l
e
s i
n
t
e
r
m
s of PTG
,
several
st
u
d
i
e
s have
sug
g
est
e
d ot
he
rwi
s
e. T
h
e
r
ef
o
r
e, t
h
e
di
ffe
re
n
ces bet
w
ee
n m
a
l
e
s and
fem
a
les i
n
t
e
rm
s of t
h
ei
r d
e
vel
opm
ent
of
resilien
ce an
d
PTG m
u
st b
e
th
oroug
h
l
y in
vestig
ated
. Th
is stu
d
y
d
o
e
s no
t co
n
s
i
d
er
o
t
h
e
r fact
o
r
s th
at
m
a
y
affect th
e v
a
riab
les th
at are in
v
e
stig
ated
i
n
th
is st
udy, s
u
ch as self-concept, social s
u
pport,
self-es
t
ee
m
,
p
e
rson
ality, and
ev
en
t typ
e
.
Th
erefo
r
e, fu
t
u
re stud
ies m
u
st con
s
id
er these fact
o
r
s in
t
h
eir i
n
v
e
stig
atio
n of
resilien
ce an
d
PTG.
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