In
te
r
n
ation
a
l Jou
rn
al
o
f E
v
al
u
a
t
i
on
a
n
d
R
e
se
arc
h
in
Ed
u
c
ation
(
IJERE
)
V
o
l.7,
N
o.2,
Ju
n
e
20
1
8
,
pp. 109~
117
ISSN
: 2252-
88
22,
D
O
I
:
10.11
59
1
/ije
re.
v7.i
2
.11
9
4
5
109
Jou
rn
a
l
h
o
me
pa
ge
: h
t
t
p
:/
/
i
a
e
s
core.
c
om
/
j
ou
rna
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s
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dex
.
p
h
p
/IJERE
The Effects of “I Can Prob
lem
Solve Program” on Child
ren’s
Perspective Taking Abilit
ies
Ceren
Y
a
ğ
m
ur Aras
,
Durm
uş Asl
an
D
e
part
m
e
n
t
o
f Early
Chil
dh
oo
d
E
d
u
catio
n
,
Ç
uk
u
r
ov
a
Un
iv
ersi
ty
,
T
urk
e
y
Art
i
cl
e In
fo
ABSTRACT
A
r
tic
le hist
o
r
y
:
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
d
Feb
2
3
,
2
018
Re
vise
d Ma
y
2
7
, 201
8
Ac
ce
p
t
ed
M
a
y
3
0
,
2
018
Th
is
s
t
u
d
y
w
as
c
o
n
d
u
ct
e
d
t
o
d
e
termin
e
th
e
ef
f
e
cts
of
I
C
an
P
ro
b
lem
S
o
lve
P
r
og
ram
(ICPS)
o
n
pres
ch
o
o
l
chi
l
d
r
en
’s
p
ersp
ecti
v
e
t
a
ki
ng
s
k
i
l
l
s.
P
a
rti
c
ipan
ts
w
ere
51
c
hi
ld
ren
w
h
o
w
e
re
a
tt
endi
ng
t
wo
p
u
b
lic
p
re
sch
ool
.
In
th
e
st
ud
y,
p
retest
–
p
os
ttes
t
–
ret
e
nti
o
n
test
c
ont
rol
gro
u
p
de
s
i
n
g
w
a
s
u
s
e
d
.
Th
ere
were
a
n
e
x
p
e
ri
m
e
nt
al
g
ro
up
a
n
d
t
wo
c
ont
rol
gro
u
p
s
i
n
t
h
e
stud
y.
As
dat
a
c
oll
ecti
on
t
o
o
l
,
“P
ersp
ective
Tak
i
n
g
T
es
t
f
o
r
Ch
ild
r
en
(
P
T
C)”
was
ut
il
i
zed
.
F
i
r
s
tl
y,
P
T
C
was
app
li
ed t
o chil
dren
a
s pretes
t. Then
“
I
C
a
n
P
r
ob
l
e
m
S
o
l
v
e
P
r
o
g
ram
”
w
as
a
pp
lied
to
c
hi
ld
ren
i
n
e
x
p
erim
ental
grou
p.
C
hi
ldren
in
con
t
ro
l
gro
u
p
s
w
ere
at
tend
t
h
e
r
eg
ul
ar
p
rog
r
a
m
.
A
f
t
e
r
t
h
e
comp
l
e
t
ing
the
p
r
og
ra
m
a
p
p
l
ic
a
t
io
n
PTC
wa
s
im
ple
m
e
n
te
d
t
o
e
xp
e
r
ime
n
ta
l
g
r
ou
p
a
nd
c
o
ntrol
gro
u
p
s
a
s
po
stte
s
t
.
F
i
na
l
l
y
, P
TC
w
a
s
a
pp
lie
d
to
e
x
p
e
r
im
en
t
a
l g
r
ou
p
as
reten
t
i
on
test
a
ft
er
a
m
o
n
t
h
o
f
p
o
s
t
t
e
st.
At
t
h
e
e
nd
of
t
he
s
tu
dy
,
i
t
w
a
s
det
e
rm
ined
t
hat
I
Can
P
r
ob
le
m
S
o
lv
e
P
r
og
ra
m
had
a
sig
n
if
icant
i
m
p
act
on
chi
l
d
r
en’s
p
ersp
ectiv
e
tak
i
n
g
s
ki
lls.
T
here
w
as
a
s
t
a
tisticall
y
s
ignificant
diff
erence
bet
w
e
e
n
exp
e
rim
e
nt
al
g
roup
a
nd
co
nt
rol
g
r
oup
s
i
n
p
o
s
tt
e
s
t
,
w
h
i
le
th
ere
was
no
d
iff
e
re
n
ce
bet
w
een
t
h
e
g
ro
ups
i
n
pre
t
test.
Chil
dre
n
in
exp
e
rim
e
nt
al
g
roup
p
erf
o
rm
ed
b
ett
e
r
th
an
c
hild
ren
in
c
on
trol
g
r
ou
ps
i
n
po
sttes
t
.
Mo
reov
er,
th
ere
was
n
o
s
ig
nificant
diff
erence
i
n
e
x
p
e
ri
m
e
ntal
gro
u
p
’
s s
c
ores
b
etw
een p
os
tt
est
and
reten
tio
n
tes
t
sco
res.
K
eyw
ord
:
I
Ca
n P
r
obl
e
m
S
olve
P
r
o
g
r
am
Pe
rspecti
v
e
ta
k
i
ng
sk
ills
P
r
eschoo
l ye
ars
Co
pyri
gh
t © 2
018 In
stit
u
t
e
of Advanced
En
gi
neeri
n
g
an
d
Scien
ce.
All
rights
res
e
rv
ed.
Corres
pon
d
i
n
g
Au
th
or:
Ce
ren
Y
a
ğm
ur
A
ras,
D
e
pa
rtme
nt
o
f
Early C
h
ild
ho
o
d
E
duc
at
i
on,
Çuk
u
r
ova
U
ni
ver
s
i
t
y,
Çuk
u
r
ova
Ü
ni
ver
s
i
t
es
i Eğ
it
im
F
akül
tes
i
Te
m
e
l
E
ği
t
i
m
B
ö
l
ü
m
ü
,
S
a
r
ıçam
, Adana,
Turkey.
Em
ail:
ara
s
.
c
r
n
yg
m
r
@gm
a
i
l
.c
om
1.
I
N
TR
OD
U
C
TI
O
N
In
o
rder
t
o
e
s
ta
blis
h
a
nd
m
a
i
n
ta
i
n
h
e
a
l
th
y
s
o
cia
l
r
ela
tio
ns
hips
t
h
r
ou
gho
ut
life
,
i
ndi
v
i
d
u
al
s
ne
e
d
t
o
un
dersta
n
d
e
ac
h
o
t
he
r
c
o
rre
ct
l
y
.
P
e
rspec
tive
-
tak
i
n
g
i
s
t
h
e
s
k
il
l
t
o
p
r
e
d
i
c
t
o
r
u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
a
s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
view
po
i
n
t
of
a
no
the
r
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
a
nd
ha
s
an
i
m
porta
n
t
r
o
l
e
in
e
s
tab
l
is
hin
g
s
uc
ce
ssful
s
oc
i
a
l
in
t
e
rac
t
i
o
ns
[
1
]
.
P
e
rspecti
v
e-
t
a
kin
g
h
as
t
hree
s
ub-
dime
ns
ions.
T
h
e
first
sub
-
di
m
e
ns
i
o
n,
p
e
r
c
e
pt
ua
l
per
s
pe
c
t
i
v
e-ta
k
i
n
g
,
i
s
descr
i
be
d
a
s
t
h
e
s
k
i
l
l
t
o
u
n
d
e
rstan
d
how
a
no
t
h
er
i
n
d
iv
id
ual
se
e
s
th
e
w
o
rld
.
C
o
gnit
i
v
e
p
ersp
ec
tiv
e
-
tak
i
ng
i
s
t
h
e
sk
i
l
l
t
o
u
nde
rs
t
a
nd
w
h
a
t
a
n
ot
h
e
r
in
d
i
vidu
a
l
t
hin
k
s
.
Em
o
t
io
n
a
l
p
er
spe
c
t
i
v
e-ta
k
i
n
g
is
d
efine
d
a
s
the
ski
l
l
t
o
un
dersta
n
d
how
an
indiv
i
dua
l feels a
n
d w
h
a
t
k
in
d
of e
mot
i
ona
l e
x
p
erie
nc
es a
n in
div
i
d
u
a
l
ha
s
[2]
.
P
e
rspecti
v
e-
t
a
kin
g
i
s
part
ic
ular
l
y
i
mp
orta
n
t
d
ue
t
o
i
t
s
relat
i
o
n
t
o
s
oc
ia
l
s
k
i
lls
s
uc
h
as
e
m
p
at
h
y
,
e
g
o
cent
r
i
s
m,
p
ro
so
c
i
al
b
ehav
i
o
rs
,
a
n
d
so
ci
a
l
p
robl
e
m
s
ol
v
i
ng
.
E
goc
en
trism
i
s
one
o
f
t
h
e
t
y
p
i
c
a
l
cha
r
ac
t
e
ris
tics
of
c
h
i
l
d
h
o
od.
E
g
o
cen
trism
c
a
uses
t
he
c
h
i
ld
t
o
b
e
ina
d
e
q
u
a
t
e
i
n
ta
ki
n
g
p
e
r
spec
tive
tow
a
r
d
s
th
e
eve
n
ts
w
it
h
th
e
v
i
e
w
p
o
in
t
of
o
ther
s.
O
nce
t
h
e
i
n
te
rac
tio
n
of
c
h
i
l
dre
n
w
i
t
h
t
h
eir
par
e
n
t
s,
o
ther
a
d
u
lt
s
an
d
f
r
i
e
n
d
s
i
n
c
re
a
s
e,
t
h
e
i
r
e
go
cent
r
i
c
b
eh
avi
o
rs
d
ec
rea
s
e
and
b
e
h
a
v
io
rs
s
uc
h
a
s
s
h
a
ri
ng
,
h
e
lp
i
n
g
a
n
d
c
oope
rat
i
n
g
st
art to develop [
3]
.
A
c
c
o
rdi
n
g
t
o
P
ia
get
a
n
d
Inh
e
lder
,
for
a
ch
i
l
d,
u
nd
ersta
n
d
i
ng
th
e
po
siti
o
n
o
f
oth
e
r
i
ndi
vi
d
u
a
l
s
,
i
s
t
he
key
in
a
c
q
u
i
ri
n
g
t
he
p
er
spe
c
t
i
v
e-ta
ki
n
g
s
k
i
l
l
.
With
t
he
s
kil
l
o
f
per
s
pec
t
ive
-
tak
i
n
g
,
the
c
h
ild
b
eg
i
n
s
t
o
s
e
e
t
he
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
SSN: 2252-
8822
IJERE
V
ol
.
7,
N
o.
2,
June
2
0
18 :
1
0
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– 1
17
11
0
sam
e
obj
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c
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f
r
o
m
diffe
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rspec
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P
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In
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a
m
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ch
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d
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s
p
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r
sp
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i
v
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a
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sk
ill
s
w
ith
t
he
“
Thr
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M
o
un
ta
in
E
x
p
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en
t.”
I
n
t
hi
s
e
x
perim
e
n
t
,
chil
d
ren
observed
a
m
odel
o
f
t
h
ree
mou
n
ta
in
s
in
di
ffe
re
nt
s
i
z
es,
a
n
d
the
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ere
aske
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t
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a
te
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ol
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sea
t
e
d
i
n
d
if
f
e
re
n
t
s
p
o
t
s
w
ou
ld
s
e
e
t
hi
s
mo
del
by
selec
t
i
n
g
t
h
e
appr
opr
i
a
t
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i
m
a
ge
.
Ch
ildre
n
up
t
o
a
ge
n
i
n
e
c
o
u
l
d
ha
rd
ly
d
e
c
ide
how
t
he
v
iew
w
o
u
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d
l
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k
f
r
o
m
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oth
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vi
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w
po
int
an
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we
re
i
n
a
d
e
qu
a
t
e
i
n
c
h
o
o
s
in
g
a
si
ght
o
u
t
s
i
de
t
heir o
w
n
p
e
r
s
p
ect
i
v
e
.
P
i
a
get
a
n
d
I
n
h
e
l
d
er
den
o
t
ed
tha
t
y
o
u
n
g
c
h
i
l
d
re
n cou
l
d no
t perc
eive
tha
t
t
h
e w
o
rl
d
c
o
u
l
d l
o
o
k
d
i
ffere
n
t
w
h
en
view
e
d fr
om
ano
t
h
er
po
int
due
t
o
the
i
r
e
g
oce
n
t
r
is
m
,
t
here
fore
,
c
o
u
l
d
n
o
t
ta
ke
t
he
p
e
r
spec
t
i
v
e
o
f
o
t
her
i
n
d
i
vi
dua
ls
i
n
presc
hoo
l
years [
4
]
.
Th
is
c
lass
ic
s
tu
d
y
o
f
P
i
a
g
e
t
a
nd
I
nhe
lde
r
l
e
d
v
ar
io
us
r
esea
rche
rs
t
o
i
n
v
e
st
ig
at
e
t
h
e
ag
e
th
at
perspe
c
tive
-
ta
k
i
n
g
s
k
i
l
l
s
de
ve
lo
pe
d
i
n
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n.
T
hrou
g
h
u
si
ng
a
sim
ila
r
m
e
tho
d
,
Laur
endea
u
a
n
d
P
in
ar
d
[5]
rea
c
he
d
c
onc
l
u
sio
n
s
s
upp
or
t
i
n
g
t
he
c
lai
m
s
of
P
iage
t
and
In
he
l
d
e
r
tha
t
c
hil
d
re
n
sta
r
t
to
d
em
ons
t
r
at
e
perspe
c
tive
-
ta
k
i
n
g
s
k
ills
f
rom
the
age
o
f
se
v
e
n
. O
n t
h
e
o
t
her
h
a
nd, se
v
er
al r
e
s
ear
cher
s cla
i
m
e
d tha
t
t
he fa
ilur
e
of
y
ou
n
g
c
h
ild
re
n
i
n
p
ers
p
ec
t
i
ve
-
t
ak
i
ng
w
a
s
la
rge
l
y
d
u
e
to
P
iag
et’
s
m
e
t
h
od.
R
e
s
ear
cher
s,
w
ho
a
t
t
e
mp
t
e
d
to
si
m
p
li
fy
t
he
m
eth
o
d
u
sed
b
y
P
i
a
get
a
n
d
to
r
ender
it
m
ore
appr
op
r
i
a
t
e
for
t
h
e
de
ve
lo
pm
ent
le
ve
l
o
f
c
h
i
l
d
ren
([6]
,
[7]
)
,
e
s
t
a
blis
he
d
di
ffe
re
nt
t
e
s
ts
t
o
m
e
a
s
ure
c
h
i
l
d
re
n
’
s
p
ers
p
ec
ti
ve
-t
aki
ng
s
k
il
l
s
.
Stu
d
i
es
c
o
n
d
u
c
t
ed
b
y
us
i
n
g
t
h
ese
t
e
s
t
s
in
dica
te
d
t
h
at
p
resc
ho
o
l
c
hi
ldr
e
n
ha
d
a
n
u
n
d
e
rst
a
n
d
i
ng
o
f
o
th
e
r
i
ndi
vi
du
a
l
s’
p
e
r
s
p
ect
iv
e
s
,
con
t
ra
ry
t
o
the
in
i
t
ia
l
ass
u
m
p
t
i
o
n
s
of
P
ia
ge
t
a
nd
I
nhe
l
d
er
[
8].
F
urtherm
o
re,
these
s
t
u
d
ie
s
de
mon
s
trate
d
w
hi
l
e
chi
l
d
ren
a
t
t
he
a
ge
o
f
tw
o
c
o
uld
pe
rce
i
ve
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
i
r
perspe
c
tiv
e
wa
s
dif
f
e
re
n
t
f
ro
m
th
e
p
e
rsp
e
ct
iv
e
of
o
t
h
ers,
chi
l
d
ren
a
t
t
he
a
ges
of
f
our
a
n
d
f
i
v
e
c
oul
d
de
fi
ne
t
h
i
s
pe
rsp
e
c
ti
ve
i
n
m
o
re
t
ha
n
o
n
e
w
a
y
[
9
],
[
1
0
]
.
I
n
add
i
t
i
on
to
r
ese
a
rc
h
ba
sed
on
a
g
e,
v
ario
us
r
e
s
ear
cher
s
exam
i
n
e
d
t
he
r
e
l
a
t
i
onsh
i
p
o
f
p
ers
p
ec
ti
ve-
t
a
k
i
ng
sk
i
l
l
s
w
i
t
h
d
i
f
f
e
ren
t
v
a
r
i
a
b
l
es.
On
ce
t
h
e
r
el
at
e
d
s
tud
i
es
w
e
r
e
s
c
ru
t
i
n
i
zed
,
it
is
possi
b
l
e
to
o
bser
ve
t
h
a
t
pe
rs
pect
i
v
e-
ta
kin
g
is in
r
e
lat
i
on w
ith var
i
a
bl
e
s
s
u
c
h as ge
n
der [1
1],
a
g
e
(
[
1
2
],
[
13]
, [1
4], [1
5])
,
i
nte
l
l
i
ge
nce
[
1
2
]
, soc
i
o-ec
onom
ic
leve
l
([
16];
[1
5]),
c
har
acte
r
ist
i
cs
o
f
pa
ren
t
s
[1
7],
m
a
them
atic
a
l
s
k
ills
[
1
8
],
s
elf-r
e
sp
ec
t
[
19]
a
n
d
s
oc
ial
pro
b
lem
sol
v
i
n
g
[1
5].
Conse
que
n
t
t
o
the
fin
d
i
n
gs
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
pe
rspec
tive-
t
a
k
i
ng
s
k
il
ls
e
me
rged
i
n
chi
l
d
ren
i
n
p
resc
ho
ol
a
ges
,
sever
a
l
i
n
terve
n
ti
on
s
t
ud
ies
w
e
re
c
ond
ucte
d
w
ith
c
h
i
ldre
n
to
d
e
vel
o
p
t
h
i
s
s
k
ill.
A
lo
n
g
w
it
h
t
h
e
st
u
d
ie
s
t
h
at
foc
u
se
d
o
n
t
h
e
t
hree
d
im
en
si
ons
o
f
pe
rs
p
ecti
v
e-ta
kin
g
h
o
lis
tica
l
l
y
,
t
h
e
r
e
e
x
i
s
t
e
d
s
t
u
d
i
e
s
t
h
a
t
c
o
m
p
r
i
s
e
d
app
l
ica
t
i
o
ns
a
i
m
ed
a
t
impro
v
i
n
g
o
nl
y
o
n
e
d
i
m
e
ns
io
n
of
p
e
r
spec
t
i
ve
-
t
ak
i
n
g
[1].
T
he
se
s
t
u
d
i
e
s
i
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
d
t
hat
them
at
i
c
i
ma
gi
na
ry
g
am
e
([2
0],
[21]
,
[2
2])
,
d
ra
ma
ti
c
pl
a
y
a
nd
b
uil
d
i
n
g
g
a
m
e
s
([23]
,
[2])
,
educ
at
io
na
l
dram
a
app
l
ica
t
i
o
ns
(
[
24],
[17])
,
s
tor
y
te
l
l
i
n
g
tec
hni
que
s
([2
5
]
,
[
2
6
]
,
[
27]
),
e
m
p
athy
e
d
u
ca
ti
o
n
p
r
o
gr
am
s
[1]
s
u
pp
orte
d
the de
ve
lo
pme
n
t
o
f
pe
r
spec
ti
ve-
t
a
k
in
g
skil
ls
in chi
l
d
re
n
.
A
c
c
o
rdi
n
g
t
o
P
ia
get,
c
hi
ldre
n
w
e
re
s
oc
i
a
l
l
y
m
o
ti
va
t
e
d
si
nce
b
i
r
th.
Th
is
m
otiva
t
i
o
n
lea
d
s
c
h
il
dre
n
t
o
soc
i
al
s
i
t
ua
ti
on
s
w
i
t
h
t
he
i
r
p
e
e
r
s
a
nd
a
d
u
l
ts
w
ho
do
n
o
t
sha
r
e
sim
i
l
a
r
pe
r
s
pec
t
i
v
es
o
r
c
o
gn
iti
ve
s
k
ills.
These
situa
t
io
ns
i
ncl
i
n
e
c
h
i
l
d
ren
to
“
c
ogn
i
t
i
v
e
c
o
n
f
l
i
c
t
s”,
he
nce
t
h
e
se
c
on
fl
i
c
t
s
s
h
ould
b
e
r
e
s
ol
v
e
d
fo
r
th
e
c
o
nt
inu
i
ty
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
e
so
ci
a
l
d
evel
op
me
nt
a
nd
p
o
s
iti
v
e
i
nt
e
r
ac
t
i
on
e
x
p
erie
n
c
es
[
2].
The
“
I
nter
per
s
ona
l
C
o
g
n
i
t
i
v
e
P
r
ob
le
m
S
o
lv
i
n
g
P
r
ogr
am
”
o
r
t
he
“
I
Can
P
r
ob
lem
S
o
l
v
e”
P
rogram
d
eve
l
ope
d
b
y
S
h
u
re
[
28]
w
as
i
nte
n
de
d
t
o
prom
o
t
e
t
h
e
deve
lopm
en
t
of
p
r
o
bl
e
m
s
olv
i
n
g
s
ki
l
l
s
t
h
at
a
re
o
f
g
r
e
a
t
i
m
p
orta
nc
e
a
nd
t
h
at
g
u
i
de
t
he
i
n
d
i
vid
u
a
l
’
s
b
e
h
a
vi
o
r
s
a
n
d
h
a
b
i
t
s
t
h
r
o
ugho
ut
l
if
e,
i
n
ea
rly
ch
i
l
d
h
o
od.
I
C
an
P
rob
l
em
S
olve
(ICP
S
)
P
r
ogram
aim
s
t
o
tea
c
h
chi
l
d
ren
ba
si
c
thi
n
k
i
ng
sk
il
ls
t
ha
t
w
o
ul
d
hel
p
t
h
em
t
o
pr
ev
ent
“
hum
a
n
-
i
n
duc
e
d
”
pr
ob
le
m
s
a
nd
to
s
ol
ve
t
he
p
r
oble
m
s
occ
u
r
r
in
g
w
ith
in
t
h
e
ir
e
nv
iro
n
m
e
nt.
The
I
C
P
S
p
r
o
g
r
a
m
w
a
s
d
ev
el
op
ed
i
n
t
h
ree
di
ffe
re
nt
m
ode
ls
f
or
p
resc
hoo
l,
p
rim
a
ry
a
nd
s
ec
onda
ry
s
c
h
oo
l
s
t
u
d
e
n
t
s
.
I
Ca
n
P
r
oble
m
S
ol
ve
P
r
o
gram
,
w
h
ic
h
w
a
s
prepa
r
ed
f
or
t
he
p
re
sc
ho
ol
s
tu
de
nts,
c
o
n
s
i
st
e
d
o
f
t
w
o
m
a
in
p
a
rt
s.
T
h
e
f
i
r
st
p
art
inc
l
ud
ed
act
ivi
tie
s
th
at
w
e
r
e
i
nte
n
ded
to
d
e
l
i
v
er
t
he
c
hi
l
d
ren
the
sk
il
l
s
t
o
s
o
lve
the
p
r
o
bl
e
m
s
tha
t
e
me
rged,
and
t
h
e
se
co
nd
par
t
com
p
rise
d a
c
t
i
v
it
ies a
i
me
d t
o
de
l
i
v
er
prob
l
e
m
solv
i
ng
sk
i
l
l
s
[2
9]
.
K
a
r
g
ı
[3
0]
i
n
v
e
stiga
t
e
d
t
he
e
ffec
t
i
ve
ne
ss
o
f
t
h
e
I
Can
P
r
oblem
S
o
l
v
e
(
I
CP
S
)
P
r
ogram
on
presc
h
o
o
l
chi
l
d
ren.
I
n
t
h
e
st
u
d
y
t
h
a
t
e
mplo
ye
d
the
e
x
pe
r
i
me
nta
l
m
e
t
h
o
d
,
i
t
w
a
s
d
e
ter
m
ine
d
t
ha
t
the
ICPS
p
r
o
gram
w
as
effec
t
i
v
e
i
n
impr
ovi
n
g
the
pr
o
b
l
em
-sol
v
i
n
g
s
kil
l
s a
n
d
i
n
reduc
i
ng
t
he pr
oble
m
b
eha
v
iors
i
n c
h
i
l
dr
en a
t t
h
e a
g
e
of
f
o
u
r.
M
oreover
,
T
an
g
ü
l
Ö
z
c
a
n
[31]
c
onc
l
ude
d
tha
t
“
lack
o
f
a
t
t
e
nti
on,”
“
s
oc
i
a
l
w
i
thdr
aw
al,
”
a
n
d
“
a
g
g
r
essi
v
e
b
e
h
av
i
o
r”
p
ro
b
l
e
m
s
of
c
h
ildre
n
w
ho
w
e
re
d
ia
gn
ose
d
w
ith
A
tte
n
tio
n
D
e
f
i
c
it
a
n
d
H
y
per
act
iv
ity
Di
so
rd
er
(
ADHD)
w
e
r
e
red
u
c
ed
d
u
e
t
o
ICP
S
ed
u
cat
i
o
n
,
i
n
h
e
r
stud
y
fo
cu
si
ng
o
n
t
h
e
effe
c
t
s
of
o
ppo
sit
i
on
a
l
d
e
fi
a
n
t
di
so
rd
e
r
i
n
ch
il
d
r
en
d
iag
n
o
s
ed
w
i
t
h
ADHD
.
In
t
h
e
p
re
sent
s
tu
dy
,
th
e
eff
ect
o
f
th
e
I
Can
P
r
o
b
l
e
m
S
ol
ve
(IC
P
S
)
P
r
ogram
,
w
h
ic
h
a
i
ms
t
o
im
pr
o
v
e
in
t
e
rper
sona
l
p
r
ob
lem
-
solvi
n
g
ski
l
l
s
,
on
the
p
e
r
s
pe
ct
ive-
tak
i
ng
skill
s o
f
p
resc
ho
ol
c
hi
ld
re
n.
2.
RESEARCH
M
ETH
O
D
2.1.
Particip
an
ts
The
sa
mp
le
w
as
c
on
siste
d
o
f
51
c
h
il
dren
f
rom
t
w
o
ki
n
d
erga
rte
n
s
i
n
t
he
c
e
n
ter
of
A
da
na,
Turke
y
.
There
w
e
r
e
o
n
e
e
xper
i
m
e
n
t
a
l
a
nd
t
w
o
co
n
t
rol
gr
ou
ps.
Ex
per
i
m
e
nta
l
gr
o
up
w
a
s
co
ns
is
ted
of
19
c
h
i
l
dre
n
,
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IJERE
I
S
S
N
:
2252-
88
22
T
h
e
Effec
t
s of “
I
Can Pr
ob
l
e
m
Solve
Pro
g
r
a
m
”
on
Chi
l
dr
en’s
…
(Ceren Ya
ğ
mu
r Aras)
11
1
w
h
er
eas
c
on
t
r
ol
1
g
ro
up
a
n
d
c
o
ntr
o
l
2
gr
ou
ps
c
o
n
s
i
s
t
e
d
o
f
1
6
c
h
il
d
r
en.
Table
1
show
s
dem
ogr
aph
i
c
cha
r
ac
t
e
ris
tics
of c
h
ildre
n a
n
d
their pa
ren
t
s.
Ta
ble
1.
T
he
D
istrib
u
tio
n
of
C
hi
l
d
r
e
n a
n
d Th
eir
P
a
rents’
D
e
m
ogr
ap
hic
C
h
a
r
ac
terist
i
c
s.
D
e
m
o
g
r
a
p
h
i
c
C
h
ar
a
c
t
er
i
s
t
i
cs
Groups
E
xpe
ri
m
e
nt
C
ontrol
1
C
ontrol
2
n
%
n
%
N
%
G
e
nd
e
r
G
irl
11
58
7
43
9
5
7
B
oy
8
42
9
57
7
4
3
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
A
t
t
e
ndi
n
g
p
re
s
c
hool
L
e
ss
t
h
a
n
one
ye
a
r
14
74
11
6
9
12
7
5
T
w
o
ye
a
r
s
5
26
5
31
4
2
5
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
Nu
m
b
e
r
of c
h
ildren in
the
f
a
mily
Si
ng
l
e
c
h
i
ld
6
32
3
19
9
5
6
T
w
o c
h
ildre
n
11
58
13
8
1
4
25
T
h
r
e
e
c
h
ildre
n
2
10
0
0
3
19
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
C
h
i
l
d's
birth
or
de
r
Fi
r
s
t-b
o
r
n
15
79
6
38
1
2
75
Se
c
ond-born
3
16
10
6
2
3
19
La
st-bor
n
1
5
0
0
1
6
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
Fa
m
i
l
y
s
truc
t
u
r
e
C
ore
fam
i
l
y
17
90
16
100
1
5
94
E
x
te
nd
e
d
f
a
m
il
y
2
10
0
0
1
6
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
Fa
m
i
l
y
t
y
p
e
C
onve
nt
iona
l
t
w
o pa
r
e
nts
f
a
m
i
l
y
18
95
16
100
1
5
94
D
i
vor
c
e
d
p
a
r
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nts
1
5
0
0
1
6
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
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100
Fa
m
i
l
y
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n
c
o
m
e
L
o
w
(500$
a
nd
le
s
s
)
3
16
1
6
0
0
M
i
ddle
(
501$-3
0
0
0
$
)
16
84
15
9
4
16
100
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
M
o
the
r
e
du
ca
tion
Prim
a
r
y
s
c
hool
1
5
1
7
1
6
H
i
gh
sc
hool
4
21
5
31
4
2
5
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o
lle
g
e
4
21
3
19
2
1
3
G
r
a
dua
t
e
9
48
7
43
9
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6
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s
t
e
r
1
5
0
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0
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o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
F
a
th
e
r
e
du
c
a
tion
Se
c
ond
a
r
y
s
c
hool
1
5
0
0
2
1
3
L
i
s
e
m
ez
unu
5
27
5
31
1
6
H
i
gh
sc
hool
2
10
2
13
4
2
5
C
o
lle
g
e
10
53
8
50
8
5
0
G
r
a
dua
t
e
1
5
1
6
1
6
T
o
ta
l
19
100
16
100
1
6
100
The
r
e
w
e
re
1
1
girl
s
a
n
d
ei
g
h
t
g
i
r
l
s
i
n
t
he
e
xperim
e
nta
l
g
ro
up,
seve
n
gir
l
s
an
d
n
i
ne
b
o
y
s
in
t
he
con
t
ro
l 1
grou
p a
n
d n
i
ne
g
i
r
l
s
and se
ve
n bo
ys i
n the
c
o
n
t
rol
2
gro
up. In eac
h gr
ou
p,
mos
t
of
t
he
c
hil
d
re
n
w
e
r
e
atte
n
d
ed
t
o
pr
esch
oo
l
for
less
tha
n
a
y
e
a
r.
C
h
ildr
e
n
mos
t
l
y
c
am
e
from
m
iddle-
inc
o
m
e
,
core
a
nd
c
o
n
v
e
n
tio
na
l
tw
o
pa
rent
s
fa
m
i
l
i
e
s
.
Educ
a
t
iona
l
leve
l
s
o
f
chi
l
dr
en’s
p
are
n
ts
i
n
e
ach
g
ro
up
a
l
s
o
s
h
o
w
e
d
simi
lar
at
tri
b
ute
s
.
In
the
b
o
t
h
grou
p
o
f
e
xper
i
m
e
nt
a
l
,
C
o
nt
r
o
l
1
a
n
d
c
o
mtr
o
l
2
g
r
oups,
m
ost
of
m
othe
r
w
e
re
u
n
i
ve
rsity
g
r
a
d
u
ate
s
w
h
er
eas
m
ost of fa
t
he
r w
e
re col
le
ge
g
ra
dua
t
e
s.
2.2.
D
ata C
o
ll
ec
tion
T
o
o
l
In the
pre
se
n
t
stu
dy,
“
P
e
rspect
ive-
ta
ki
ng
Tes
t
f
or
C
hil
d
re
n
(P
T
C)
,” w
hich
w
a
s
deve
l
ope
d
by
A
s
la
n
and
K
ö
ksa
l
-A
kyo
l [32]
w
as
u
se
d to e
va
l
u
a
t
e
the
chi
l
d
re
n
’
s p
e
r
s
p
e
c
t
i
ve
t
a
k
i
ng
sk
i
l
l
s
.
Pe
rspecti
v
e-
t
a
kin
g
T
est for
Chil
dre
n
(P
T
C
)
The
P
e
r
s
pe
ct
i
v
e-ta
ki
n
g
T
e
s
t
for
Ch
i
l
dr
e
n
(
P
T
C)
i
s
co
m
pose
d
o
f
t
hr
ee
t
h
eoret
i
ca
l
di
m
e
nsi
o
ns,
nam
e
ly
“
Pe
rc
e
p
tua
l
P
erspec
t
i
ve
-ta
k
in
g,”
“
C
og
n
i
t
i
v
e
Pe
rspect
ive-
ta
k
i
n
g
,
”
a
nd
“
E
mot
i
ona
l
P
e
r
s
pe
cti
v
e-
tak
i
ng”
a
nd
24
i
tem
s
.
The
pe
rce
p
t
u
a
l
p
e
r
spe
c
t
i
v
e-
t
a
k
i
n
g
a
nd
t
h
e
c
ogn
i
t
i
v
e
perspe
ct
ive
-
ta
ki
n
g
d
im
ens
i
o
n
s
a
r
e
com
p
o
s
ed o
f four
ite
ms ea
c
h. The em
o
ti
ona
l
pe
rspec
tive-
t
a
kin
g
d
i
m
en
sion
, on
t
h
e ot
h
e
r
h
a
nd
, i
s c
o
mp
osed
of
16
i
t
em
s,
f
our
f
or
e
a
c
h
of
t
he
e
m
o
ti
o
n
s
(ha
p
pine
ss,
sad
n
e
ss,
a
n
ge
r,
f
ea
r).
The
ab
o
v
e
m
e
n
ti
one
d
i
t
em
s
c
ove
r
v
a
rio
u
s
s
itu
at
io
n
s
re
l
at
e
d
t
o
p
e
rsp
e
c
t
i
v
e
-
t
a
king
t
h
a
t
p
r
e
s
c
hool
c
hil
d
re
n c
oul
d c
o
m
e
a
cross
i
n
ever
y
da
y li
fe an
d
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
SSN: 2252-
8822
IJERE
V
ol
.
7,
N
o.
2,
June
2
0
18 :
1
0
9
– 1
17
11
2
the
per
s
pe
c
t
ive
-
tak
i
n
g
o
f
t
h
e
pro
t
ag
o
n
ist
i
n
t
he
p
ic
t
u
re
i
s
r
e
q
u
i
red
to
b
e
pred
icte
d.
T
he
c
hi
l
d
g
e
t
s
a
score
o
f
“1
”
i
f
s
/
h
e
co
rrec
t
ly
p
re
di
c
t
s
th
e
p
e
rsp
e
c
t
i
v
e
o
f
t
he
p
rot
a
g
o
n
i
s
t
a
n
d
a
“
0
”
i
f
p
r
e
d
i
c
t
s
i
n
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
l
y
.
T
h
e
h
i
g
h
e
s
t
score
tha
t
c
ou
ld
b
e
o
b
ta
i
n
e
d
from
PTC is “
2
4
”
a
nd t
h
e
low
e
st
i
s
“0
”
[
1
]
.
The
va
lid
i
t
y
a
nd
rel
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
s
t
u
dy
o
f
t
he
m
e
a
sure
me
nt
t
o
o
l
w
a
s
c
o
n
duc
t
e
d
by
A
s
l
a
n
and
K
ö
ksa
l
-
A
k
y
o
l
[3
5].
Th
e
st
u
d
y
for
the
deve
l
opm
en
t
o
f
the
me
a
sure
m
e
nt to
ol
w
a
s
c
a
r
ri
ed
o
ut
w
ith
23
6
c
h
il
d
r
en
i
n
ag
e
s
of
t
hre
e
,
fo
ur
a
nd
fi
ve,
an
d
ca
nd
ida
t
e
i
t
em
s
t
h
a
t
c
ou
l
d
b
e
inc
l
ude
d
in
t
he
P
T
C
a
n
d
t
heir
d
raw
i
n
g
s
w
e
r
e
prepa
r
ed
b
y
t
h
e
resea
r
che
r
.
In
o
r
d
er
t
o
a
ssess
the
a
ppr
opr
ia
t
e
n
ess
o
f
d
raw
i
ngs
a
nd
g
u
i
d
e
l
i
ne
s
presc
h
ool
educ
a
t
i
o
n
s
p
ec
ia
lis
ts
w
e
r
e
c
o
nsu
l
te
d.
T
he
“
P
e
rspecti
v
e-
t
a
kin
g
t
est
(
P
TT)”
deve
lo
pe
d
by
Ş
e
n
e
r
[2]
a
nd
t
h
e
“
E
m
p
athy
S
c
a
l
e
f
o
r
Chi
l
d
r
e
n
(ES
C
)”
d
e
v
elo
p
e
d
by
K
ö
ksa
l
-A
ky
ol
a
n
d
A
s
la
n
[33]
w
er
e
ut
i
l
ized
f
or
t
he
criter
i
on
v
a
lid
i
t
y
of
t
he
m
eas
ure
m
e
n
t
t
o
o
l
.
I
t
w
as
d
e
t
er
mined
t
ha
t
t
h
er
e
w
a
s
a
hi
g
h
ly
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
p
o
s
iti
ve
corr
elat
i
on
bet
w
e
e
n
P
T
C
an
d
ES
C
(
r
=
.
73,
p
=
.
0
01)
a
n
d
b
e
t
w
e
en
P
TC
a
n
d
P
T
(
r=.80,
p
=
.
001).
The
i
n
t
e
rnal
c
o
nsi
s
t
e
n
c
y
rel
i
a
b
i
lity
c
o
e
ff
ic
i
e
nt
o
f
t
h
e
te
st
w
as
d
et
e
r
mi
n
e
d
a
s
.
7
1
a
n
d
t
h
e
t
e
s
t
-
r
e
t
e
s
t
r
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
w
a
s
cal
c
ul
a
t
ed as
.9
1.
2.3.
I
n
te
rven
tion
I
Ca
n
P
r
obl
e
m
S
olve
P
r
o
gr
am
I
Can
P
r
ob
le
m
S
o
lve
:
T
he
I
nter
perso
n
a
l
C
og
n
i
t
i
ve
P
roblem
S
ol
v
i
n
g
P
r
og
r
a
m
w
a
s
d
e
ve
l
ope
d
by
S
hure
in 19
92 to pro
vi
de ch
i
l
d
ren w
i
t
h
thi
nk
in
g
s
k
i
l
l
s
tha
t
cou
l
d
he
l
p
t
h
em
s
ol
ve the
pr
o
b
l
e
m
s t
h
e
y
f
a
c
e
d
a
n
d
hel
p
t
he
m
so
lv
e
the pro
b
lem
s
t
ha
t
em
erge
d.
Ö
ğü
l
m
üş
[
3
4
]
a
d
o
p
t
e
d
t
he
p
r
ogra
m
i
n
T
u
rk
i
s
h
b
o
t
h lin
g
u
istica
l
l
y
and
cu
l
t
ural
l
y
.
Th
is
e
duca
t
io
nal
a
p
proac
h
w
a
s
d
e
s
ig
ne
d
pa
rt
i
c
u
l
arly
f
or
y
ou
ng
c
hi
ld
ren
a
n
d
w
a
s
p
r
i
m
ari
l
y
foc
u
se
d
o
n
d
i
ffe
ren
t
t
h
i
n
k
i
n
g
s
k
ills
a
s
so
cial
p
art
i
ci
pa
ti
on
a
n
d
a
d
jus
t
me
nt
t
oo
ls
f
or
c
hildre
n.
T
he
m
ost
impor
ta
nt
c
har
a
cter
i
s
t
i
c
of
t
h
e
a
pproa
c
h
w
a
s
t
o
t
e
ac
h
how
t
o
co
n
t
em
p
l
a
t
e
with
in
a
p
ro
blem
-so
l
v
i
n
g
p
rocess
rathe
r
tha
n
tea
c
h
in
g
w
h
at t
o do
or t
hi
n
k
[3
5
]
.
There
a
r
e
thre
e
ver
s
ions
o
f
the
pro
g
ram
desi
g
n
e
d
f
o
r
p
r
e
sch
o
o
l
,
p
r
i
m
a
r
y
a
n
d
s
e
c
o
n
d
a
r
y
s
c
h
o
o
l
stude
n
t
s.
T
he
I
CP
S
progra
m
p
repa
red
for
t
h
e
pre
s
c
h
o
o
l
st
a
g
e
c
o
n
sists
of
t
wo
m
ain
parts.
T
he
f
irs
t
p
art
i
n
clu
d
e
s
th
e
act
i
v
i
t
i
e
s
th
at
t
e
ach
t
h
e
n
ec
e
ssary
p
re
-s
k
i
ll
s
t
o
so
lve
p
r
o
b
l
e
m
s
a
n
d
t
h
e
sec
o
nd
part
i
nc
lu
d
e
s
t
h
e
ac
t
i
v
i
ti
e
s
t
ha
t d
e
li
ver
the
pr
ob
le
m-
solv
in
g sk
i
l
l
s
.
A
c
ti
vi
ty
p
ro
gram
P
r
e
-
ski
l
l
s
t
o
so
l
v
e
pr
ob
lem
s
:
1
A
c
ti
vi
ties
fro
m
1
to
1
0
:
C
h
i
ldre
n
a
r
e
t
a
ug
ht
t
he
e
xpre
ssi
ons
I
T
I
S
,
S
OM
E-
W
HOLE,
NOT,
OR,
AND,
S
A
ME,
D
I
FF
EREN
T
in
t
he I
CP
S
program
.
2
A
c
ti
vi
ties
from
11
t
o
1
8:
H
el
p
ch
ildr
e
n
lear
n
to
r
e
c
og
nize
t
he
em
o
t
i
o
ns
c
orr
ectl
y
w
hen
them
se
lves
a
n
d
o
t
h
e
rs felt
HAP
P
I
N
E
SS,
SA
DNESS
a
n
d
ANGER,
3
A
c
ti
vi
ties
from
19
t
o
2
2
:
E
nc
o
u
ra
ge t
he
chi
l
d
ren
t
o
d
e
v
el
o
p
t
he
i
r
liste
nin
g
a
nd a
tte
n
t
i
o
n ski
lls,
4
A
c
ti
vi
ties
fro
m
23
to
2
8
:
I
ntr
o
d
u
ce
the
c
h
il
dre
n
t
he
c
o
n
ce
pts
o
f
W
H
Y,
B
ECAUSE,
a
n
d
MAYBE,
P
O
S
S
I
B
LE
in the
I
CP
S
program
5
A
c
ti
vi
ties
fro
m
29
to
3
1
:
T
e
a
c
h
the
c
h
i
l
dre
n
t
o
a
s
k
o
t
her
s
w
hat
t
h
e
y
l
i
ke
(
do
yo
u
like
?
)
a
n
d
enc
o
ura
g
e
chi
l
d
ren
to
r
ec
og
n
i
z
e
i
n
d
i
vi
dua
l d
i
ffe
renc
e
s
so tha
t
t
he
y c
oul
d
l
ea
rn
ot
h
er i
ndi
vi
u
a
l
s
’ p
r
ef
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
.
6
A
c
ti
vi
ties
from
3
2
t
o
33
:
H
e
l
p
t
he
c
hi
ldr
e
n
to
unde
rsta
n
d
w
hat
i
s
F
AIR
an
d
wh
a
t
i
s
NOT
F
AIR;
i
n
th
e
mea
n
t
i
m
e, i
t
i
s
a
i
m
ed
t
o
d
e
mo
n
s
t
r
a
t
e th
at
b
e
i
ng
f
ai
r so
met
i
me
s
m
i
gh
t
m
ean
t
o
w
a
i
t
.
Pro
b
l
e
m-s
o
lvin
g
skil
l
s
:
1
-A
c
t
iv
i
t
i
e
s
fr
o
m
34
to
3
8
(A
l
t
er
na
tive
S
o
lut
i
o
n
s):
H
e
lp
t
he
c
h
i
l
d
re
n
t
o
u
nd
e
r
st
an
d
wh
at
a
p
ro
b
l
em
i
s
and
lear
n h
o
w to
c
re
ate
a la
rge
num
ber
of
possib
l
e
solu
t
i
o
n
s.
2
-A
c
t
iv
i
t
i
e
s
fr
om
39
t
o
5
0
(P
ossi
ble
O
u
t
c
ome
s
):
H
el
p
t
h
e
ch
i
l
d
re
n
t
o
l
ea
rn
s
equ
e
nti
a
l
thi
n
ki
ng
a
s
a
p
r
e
r
e
q
ui
si
t
e
o
f
g
r
a
s
pi
ng
cau
se
a
nd
e
ff
ec
t
re
lat
i
on
sh
i
p
s
a
n
d
h
e
l
p
t
h
em
t
o
thi
n
k
in
s
e
q
ue
n
c
e
s
i
n
ev
e
r
yda
y
life,
3
-A
c
t
iv
i
t
i
e
s
fro
m
51
t
o
59
(
M
atc
h
ing
p
o
ss
ib
le
s
o
l
u
t
io
ns
w
i
t
h
p
o
s
s
i
bl
e
o
u
t
c
om
es):
A
ime
d
t
o
pro
v
i
d
e
th
e
c
h
ild
re
n
an
i
ndi
vi
d
u
a
l
app
l
i
c
at
ion
o
ppo
rt
uni
ty
t
o
se
e
t
h
e
li
nk
s
betw
e
e
n
a
p
oss
i
ble
s
o
lut
i
o
n
a
nd a
p
o
ssi
bl
e
outcome [35
]
, [
34]).
2.4.
D
ata C
o
ll
ec
tion
P
r
i
m
a
r
i
l
y,
s
c
h
o
o
l
adm
i
n
i
s
t
rato
rs
a
nd
pare
n
t
s
w
e
r
e
i
nform
e
d,
a
nd
t
he
ir
p
er
m
i
ssion
s
w
e
re
r
ec
eive
d
for
the
i
m
plem
en
t
a
ti
o
n
o
f
the
p
r
ese
n
t
re
sear
ch.
The
data
w
e
r
e
ob
ta
i
ne
d
t
h
ro
ug
h
i
n
d
i
v
i
dua
l
i
n
t
e
rv
iew
s
w
it
h
c
h
ild
re
n
in
a
q
ui
et
c
l
a
ssroom
o
f
t
h
e
scho
ol
.
P
T
C
wa
s
i
m
pl
ement
e
d
as
a
p
re-tes
t
for
all
participants.
Conse
que
n
t
t
o
t
h
e
c
o
m
p
le
t
i
o
n
o
f
the
pr
e-tests,
t
he
I
C
an
P
r
o
b
l
e
m
S
o
l
v
e
(ICP
S
)
P
r
ogram
,
consis
tin
g
o
f
5
9
ac
t
i
v
i
ti
e
s
,
was
adm
i
n
i
s
t
er
ed
t
o
the
ch
i
l
dre
n
i
n
t
h
e
ex
perim
e
nta
l
gro
u
p
f
or
t
hree
m
on
t
h
s,
f
our
d
ay
s
a
w
e
e
k
.
A
t
the
peri
ods
w
hen
I
Ca
n
P
r
ob
lem
S
o
lve
(ICP
S
)
P
rogra
m
w
a
s
not
a
dm
in
i
s
ter
e
d,
t
he
c
h
i
l
d
re
n
in
t
he
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
S
N
:
2252-
88
22
T
h
e
Eff
e
c
ts o
f “
I
Can Pr
ob
le
m
Solve
Pro
g
ram
”
on
C
h
i
ldre
n
’
s
…
(
C
e
r
en Y
a
ğ
mu
r Aras)
11
3
e
xper
im
e
n
ta
l
g
r
o
u
p
c
ont
i
nu
e
d
the
ir
r
e
g
u
lar
pr
og
r
a
m
i
n
c
la
ss
es.
C
h
il
dr
e
n
i
n
t
h
e
co
n
t
r
o
l
gr
o
up
f
o
llo
w
e
d
th
e
r
e
gu
lar
pr
o
g
r
a
m
in
the
ir
c
l
a
ss
w
it
h
o
u
t
a
ny
i
n
ter
v
e
n
tio
n
.
Wh
i
le
e
a
c
h
a
c
tiv
i
t
y
in
t
he
I
CP
S
P
r
ogr
am
i
s
recommended
to
take
15
to
20
minutes,
the
sessions
were
conduct
ed
in
an
average
of
40
to
50
due
to
the
entirely
game-based
nature
of
the
content
including
preparation
,
warm-up,
application,
and
evaluation
p
rocesses.
The
mul
t
i
-
pur
pos
e
w
o
r
k
sho
p
i
n
th
e
sc
h
o
o
l
yar
d
w
a
s
u
ti
liz
ed
f
or
th
e
a
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
ion
of
t
he
I
CP
S
pr
ogr
am
.
Th
e
w
o
r
k
sh
o
p
w
as
e
q
u
i
p
ped
b
y
the
r
esea
r
c
he
r
w
i
t
h
the
n
ec
essary
m
ateria
ls
b
efore
e
ach
c
lass
se
ssi
on.
A
t
the
star
t
of
the
a
p
p
l
ica
t
io
n
,
a
I
C
P
S
boa
r
d
w
a
s
s
e
t
up
w
i
t
h
t
he
c
h
i
l
dr
e
n,
a
nd
i
t
w
a
s
i
nte
n
de
d
t
ha
t
th
is
b
oar
d
w
o
u
ld
c
o
n
tr
i
bu
te
t
o
t
h
e
r
e
i
n
f
o
r
c
e
m
e
n
t
of
the
a
c
ti
v
it
ie
s
a
nd
t
he
chi
l
dr
en’
s
k
n
ow
l
e
dge
bu
i
ld
i
ng
as
the
cla
s
s
ses
s
i
o
n
s
p
r
o
gr
e
s
se
d,
th
r
ou
g
h
a
d
d
ing
t
h
e
w
o
r
d
s,
p
ic
tur
e
s
,
alt
e
rn
ativ
e
t
h
ou
ght
s,
s
ol
u
t
i
on
way
s
t
hat
t
h
e
c
hil
dr
e
n
pr
o
du
c
e
d
to
t
he
b
oar
d.
A
f
t
e
r
t
h
e
com
p
l
e
ti
on
o
f
the
I
Ca
n
P
r
ob
l
e
m
S
o
lve
(
I
CP
S
)
P
rogr
a
m
,
P
T
C
w
a
s
a
p
p
l
i
e
d
a
s
a
p
o
s
t
-
t
e
s
t
t
o
the
c
h
i
ldr
en
i
n
the
e
x
per
im
en
tal
a
nd
c
o
n
tr
o
l
gr
ou
ps.
A
lm
o
st
a
m
ont
h
af
t
er
the
pos
t-
te
st
s
w
er
e
a
pp
l
ie
d
,
P
T
C
w
a
s
adm
iniste
r
ed
t
o
th
e
c
h
ildr
e
n
in
t
he
e
x
p
er
i
m
en
ta
l
gr
o
u
p
a
s
a
reten
tion
test.
2.
5.
D
a
t
a
A
n
a
ly
sis
D
a
ta
o
b
t
a
in
e
d
as
t
he
r
esu
l
t
s
o
f
the
pr
e
s
e
n
t
st
ud
y
w
er
e
a
nalyze
d
t
h
r
oug
h
d
e
sc
r
i
p
t
i
v
e
sta
t
i
s
ti
c
s
a
nd
norm
a
lit
y
tes
t
r
esul
t
s.
Ac
cordi
n
g
to
t
he
S
h
a
pir
o
-wil
k
nor
m
ality
t
e
s
t
resu
lt
s,
i
t
wa
s
d
e
te
rmi
n
e
d
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
p
r
e-
tes
t/
p
ost-
te
st
a
nd
r
e
ten
t
ion
te
st
s
c
o
r
e
s
of
the
c
hi
ldr
e
n
fr
om
P
TC
w
er
e
norm
a
lly
d
is
trib
u
t
e
d
.
Ther
efor
e,
s
c
o
res
fro
m
PT
C
we
re
e
v
a
lu
at
ed
u
si
ng
p
ara
m
e
t
ri
c
st
a
t
i
s
ti
c
s.
An
al
ysi
s
o
f
var
i
a
n
ce
w
a
s
used
t
o
de
te
r
m
i
ne
w
he
t
he
r
ther
e
e
x
i
s
ted
a
si
g
n
i
f
ic
an
t
d
i
ffere
nce
b
e
twee
n
the
PTC
pre
-
test
a
n
d
p
ost-
t
est
a
ver
a
ge
s
c
o
r
es,
f
or
c
h
ildr
en
in
t
h
e
exp
e
r
i
me
nt
al
a
nd
c
ont
r
o
l
g
r
oup
s.
I
n
a
d
dit
i
on
,
T
uk
ey
P
o
s
t
Ho
c
an
a
l
y
s
i
s
w
as
u
ti
l
iz
ed
to
e
st
a
b
li
sh
th
e
di
ffere
n
ce
be
twe
en
P
T
C
p
o
s
t-tes
t
sc
ore
s
o
f
ch
ildr
en
i
n
e
x
p
er
i
m
e
nt
a
l
a
nd
c
on
t
r
o
l
g
r
oup
s.
T
h
e
t
t
e
s
t
wa
s
u
s
ed
t
o
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e
w
h
e
t
h
e
r
t
h
e
r
e
w
a
s
a
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
t
h
e
P
T
C
p
o
s
t
t
e
s
t
a
n
d
r
e
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
t
e
s
t
s
c
o
r
e
s
o
f
the
ch
i
l
dr
e
n
i
n
th
e
e
x
per
i
m
e
n
t
al
g
r
o
up.
3.
RESU
L
T
S
A
ND ANALY
S
IS
I
n
t
h
i
s
pa
r
t
f
i
n
di
n
g
s ab
o
u
t
c
h
ildr
e
n’
s sc
or
es
i
n
pr
ete
s
t,
p
os
tt
e
s
t an
d r
ete
n
ti
o
n tes
t
a
re prese
nt
e
d
.
Tab
le
2
i
n
f
o
rms
th
e resu
lt
s
o
f
v
a
r
ia
n
c
e
a
n
aly
s
is
a
b
o
u
t
t
h
e c
h
ildre
n’
s
s
co
r
e
s
i
n
t
h
e
p
r
e
t
e
st
.
Ta
bl
e
2
.
R
e
s
ul
ts
o
f
Va
ri
a
n
ce
A
n
a
ly
si
s
Ab
out
T
h
e
C
h
ild
re
n’s Sco
r
es in
The Pret
est
.
Sourc
e
Sum
o
f
squa
r
e
s
df
M
ea
n
squa
r
e
F
p
Be
twe
e
n
groups
1
8.
220
2
9.
11
0.
807
.
452
Within
groups
541
.
81
9
4
8
11.
288
Tota
l
560
.
03
9
5
0
A
va
r
iance
an
aly
sis
w
as
co
n
duc
te
d
t
o
com
par
e
the
s
c
o
r
e
s
of
ch
i
l
d
r
en
i
n
exp
e
ri
me
nt
a
l
g
ro
up
a
nd
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
gr
o
ups
in
pr
ete
s
t.
I
t
w
a
s
fo
u
nd
o
u
t
tha
t
t
her
e
w
a
s
no
m
e
an
i
ng
ful
d
i
ffere
n
ce
ex
iste
d
am
o
n
g
the
e
xper
im
e
nta
l
a
nd
t
h
e
c
ontr
o
l
gr
o
ups
i
n
the
p
r
etest
(
F
(
2
,
48)
=
0
.
8
0
7
,
p
>.
0
5)
.
This
f
ind
i
ng
dem
o
n
s
tr
a
te
d
tha
t
t
h
e
gr
oups
s
howe
d
s
imil
i
a
r
per
s
p
e
cti
v
e
ta
k
ing
a
b
i
l
itie
s
prior
t
o
t
h
e
ex
per
im
en
t.
Ta
blo
3
dem
onstr
ate
s
p
r
ete
st
an
d
pos
t
tes
t
m
eans
for
exper
im
e
nt
al
g
r
o
up
an
d
con
tr
o
l
gr
o
u
p
s
.
Tab
le
3.
P
r
e
test
and
P
o
s
ttes
t
M
ea
ns
f
or
E
x
p
er
im
enta
l
G
r
o
u
p
and
C
o
n
tr
o
l
G
r
oups
G
r
oup
s
N
P
r
et
es
t
P
o
s
t
t
e
s
t
Sd
Sd
Expe
r
i
m
e
nt
a
l
19
10.
42
3.
27
19.
84
2.
67
C
ontrol
1
16
11.
62
3.
89
14.
43
3.
28
C
ontrol
2
16
11.
81
2,
80
14.
81
3.
01
The
m
e
a
n
of
e
xpe
r
i
me
nta
l
gr
ou
p incr
e
ase
d hig
hl
y fr
om
pr
e
tes
t
t
o
post
t
es
t.
T
he
e
xper
i
m
e
nta
l
gr
o
up’
s
pos
t
t
es
t
m
ean
w
as
19.
8
4,
w
he
r
ea
s
pr
e
t
e
s
t
m
ean
w
as
10.
42.
T
he
m
e
an
o
f
t
h
e
c
o
n
t
r
o
l
gr
o
ups
a
l
s
o
i
n
c
r
ea
sed
from
pre
t
e
s
t
t
o
p
os
ttes
t
,
bu
t
t
h
e
i
n
c
r
ea
se
w
as
q
u
i
te
s
m
a
l
l
.
The
c
o
n
tr
ol
1
g
r
o
up’
s
post
te
s
t
m
ea
n
w
as
1
4.
43,
w
h
e
r
ea
s
pr
e
t
e
s
t
me
an
w
as
1
1
.
62
a
nd
t
h
e
c
o
nt
r
o
l
2
gr
o
u
p
’
s
pos
tte
s
t
m
ea
n
w
a
s
14.
8
1
,
w
h
e
r
ea
s
pr
e
t
e
s
t
me
an
w
a
s
11.
81.
T
a
b
l
e
4
s
h
o
w
s
t
he
r
esult
of
v
a
r
ia
n
ce
a
n
aly
s
i
s
ab
o
u
t
t
h
e
sc
or
es
chi
ldr
en
g
o
t
fr
o
m
the
posttes
t.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
S
N: 2
2
5
2
-88
22
I
J
ERE
Vo
l
.
7
, No
.
2
,
Ju
n
e
2
01
8
: 1
09
–
11
7
11
4
Tab
le
4.
T
he
Resu
lts
o
f
V
ar
ianc
e
A
nal
y
s
i
s
A
b
o
u
t
T
he
Chi
l
d
r
en’
s
Sco
r
es in
Th
e P
o
st
test.
Sourc
e
Su
m
of
squa
re
s
D
f
M
ea
n
s
q
ua
r
e
F
p
Be
twe
e
n
groups
325.
60
8
2
162.
80
4
18.
305
.
001
Within
groups
426.
90
1
48
8.
894
Tota
l
752.
51
0
50
It
w
a
s
f
o
u
n
d
tha
t
t
he
re
w
a
s
a
s
ta
t
i
s
tica
l
ly
s
ign
i
fic
a
n
t
d
i
ffere
nce
am
ong
t
he
gr
ou
ps’
s
c
or
e
s
i
n
t
he
pos
t
tes
t
(
F
(
2
,
4
8)
=
1
8.
30
5,
p
<.
01)
.
The
eff
ect
s
ize
f
o
r
th
is
a
nal
ys
is
w
as
m
edium
(
d=.
43)
.
Tuke
y
p
o
s
t
h
o
c
a
nal
ys
i
s
w
a
s
done
i
n
or
der
t
o
def
i
ne
th
e
s
o
u
r
ce
of
t
he
d
i
f
f
e
r
en
c
e.
The
r
esul
ts
of
T
uke
y
a
n
a
l
ysis
s
how
e
d
t
hat
ther
e
w
as
a
si
g
n
i
f
ican
t
di
ffe
r
e
nc
e
am
on
g
th
e
exper
i
m
e
nta
l
g
r
o
up
a
nd
c
o
ntr
ol
1
a
n
d
c
on
t
r
ol
2
gr
ou
ps
i
n
f
a
v
or
the
e
x
pe
r
ime
nt
a
l
g
r
o
u
p
.
The
r
e
sults
o
f
Ta
bl
e
3 ve
T
a
b
l
e
4
s
how
e
d
t
ha
t
“
I
C
a
n P
r
oblem
S
o
l
ve
P
r
ogr
am
”
had
a
si
gn
ifica
n
t
e
f
fe
ct
o
n
c
h
il
dre
n
’s
p
er
spe
c
t
i
v
e
ta
k
i
n
g
s
k
i
l
l
s
.
Tab
le
5
dem
ons
t
r
ate
s
t
he
m
e
a
n
P
T
C
sc
or
es
f
or
ex
p
e
r
i
me
n
t
al
gro
up
i
n
po
st
a
nd
r
e
t
e
n
t
ion
t
e
s
t.
Tab
le
5.
Mean
P
TC S
cor
e
s
for
Expe
r
ime
nt
a
l
G
r
oup
i
n
P
ost
Te
st
a
nd
R
et
e
nt
i
on
Tes
t
.
Te
s
t
N
Sd
d
f
t
p
Postte
st
19
19.
84
2.
67
18
-
1.
33
6
.
198
Re
t
e
ntion
t
e
st
19
20.
47
2.
73
A
s
a
r
e
s
ul
t
of
t
he
i
n
depe
nd
e
nt
s
am
ple
s
t
tes
t,
w
e
f
o
u
n
d
t
ha
t
no
m
e
a
n
i
n
gf
u
l
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
nce
e
x
is
te
d
be
t
w
ee
n
ex
pe
r
im
e
nta
l
g
r
o
up’
s
pos
t
tes
t
a
nd
r
e
ten
t
io
n
tes
t
s
cor
e
s
[
t
(18
)
=
-
1.
3
3
6,
p>
.
0
1]
.
Thi
s
f
in
din
g
de
mon
s
tr
ate
d
t
hat
t
h
e
ef
fe
cts
of
“
I
C
a
n
P
r
ob
lem
S
o
l
v
e
P
r
ogr
am
”
on
chi
l
dr
e
n’
s
per
s
pe
ct
ive
ta
k
i
n
g
ski
lls
c
on
tin
ue
d
fr
om
pos
ttes
t
t
o
r
e
tent
ion
t
e
st
.
T
hi
s
r
es
ea
rch
wa
s
co
nd
u
c
t
e
d
in
o
rd
e
r
t
o
d
e
t
e
rmi
n
e
th
e
effe
ct
s
o
f
the
I
C
an
P
r
ob
l
e
m
S
o
lve
P
r
ogr
am
on
t
he
per
s
pec
t
i
ve
-
tak
i
ng
s
k
il
ls
of
fi
ve
yea
r
s
o
l
d
c
hi
l
dr
e
n.
T
h
i
s
s
ect
i
on
c
o
v
e
r
s
t
he
di
s
c
uss
i
ons
o
n
t
he
fi
n
d
i
n
g
s
of
t
he
r
esea
r
ch.
A
s
a
r
e
s
u
l
t
o
f
t
h
e
p
r
e
s
e
n
t
s
t
u
d
y
,
i
t
w
a
s
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e
d
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
r
e
w
as
no
s
ig
n
if
ica
nt
d
if
fe
r
en
c
e
be
t
w
e
e
n
the
pr
e-
te
st
m
e
a
n
s
c
o
r
e
s
of
C
on
t
r
o
l
1
a
n
d
C
ontr
o
l
2
gr
o
u
p
s
,
w
h
o
c
o
nt
i
nu
e
d
to
r
e
g
ul
a
r
e
duca
t
io
n
cur
r
i
c
ulum
a
nd
the
pr
e-
te
st
m
ea
n
sc
or
e
o
f
t
he
ex
p
er
im
e
n
ta
l
gr
ou
p,
t
o
w
h
ic
h
I
Can
P
r
ob
l
em
S
olve
P
r
ogr
a
m
w
a
s
a
pp
lie
d.
A
c
cor
di
n
gl
y,
t
he
c
h
i
l
dr
e
n
in
t
he
e
xpe
r
i
me
nta
l
a
n
d
c
o
nt
r
o
l
gr
o
up
s
w
er
e
f
ou
n
d
t
o
be
s
i
m
il
a
r
to
e
ach
o
the
r
in
ter
m
s
of
p
er
sp
e
cti
ve-
ta
k
in
g
ski
l
ls
b
ef
o
r
e
th
e
expe
r
ime
nt
a
l
p
r
o
c
ess.
T
h
is
i
s
c
on
side
r
ed
to
b
e
a
r
esul
t
o
f
ha
vi
ng
sim
ilar
deve
lopm
ent
an
d
e
n
v
i
r
o
nme
n
t
a
l
cha
r
ac
t
e
r
istic
s.
I
t
w
a
s
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
e
d
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
r
e
w
a
s
a
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t
d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
P
T
C
p
os
t-tes
t
s
c
o
r
e
s
of
c
h
ildre
n
i
n
the
ex
per
ime
nt
a
l
g
r
o
u
p
,
to
w
hic
h
t
he
“
I
C
a
n
P
r
ob
lem
S
o
lve
P
r
ogr
am
”
p
ro
gr
am
w
a
s
a
pp
l
i
ed,
a
n
d
the
PTC
p
o
s
t
-
t
e
st
s
co
re
s
of
c
hi
ld
ren
i
n
C
o
nt
r
ol
1
a
nd
2
g
r
ou
ps.
A
c
c
o
r
di
ng
t
o
th
i
s
r
esu
l
t
,
i
t
i
s
p
ossib
l
e
t
o
s
ta
t
e
t
h
a
t
the
I
C
P
S
p
r
o
gr
am
h
as
a
pos
it
iv
e
e
f
fec
t
o
n
t
h
e
i
n
c
r
ea
se
o
f
chi
ldr
en’
s
sk
il
l
s
t
o
ta
ke
p
er
spe
c
t
i
v
e.
I
t
is
a
s
we
ll
pos
si
b
l
e
to
a
sse
rt
t
hat
the
i
n
c
r
ea
se
in
the
pe
r
s
pe
ct
ive-
tak
i
n
g
sk
il
ls
o
f
c
h
i
l
d
ren
in
t
he
e
xp
e
r
ime
n
ta
l
gr
ou
p
was
lar
g
e
ly
inf
lue
n
ced
by
t
h
e
pro
b
lem
s
it
u
a
t
ion
s
t
hat
re
qu
ire
the
u
se
o
f
soc
i
a
l
s
k
i
lls
w
i
th
in
t
h
e
c
o
nte
x
t
of
t
he
pr
ogr
am
,
that
t
he
c
hi
l
d
r
e
n
w
e
r
e
gui
de
d
tow
a
r
d
s
mul
t
id
i
m
e
n
s
i
ona
l
t
hin
k
i
n
g
thr
o
ugh
a
c
t
iv
itie
s
s
u
ch
a
s
ga
me
s,
st
oryte
l
lin
g
a
n
d
ro
le
p
l
a
yin
g
.
I
Ca
n
Pro
b
le
m
Solve
i
s
a
t
rain
in
g
pr
o
gr
a
m
ba
se
d
on
c
o
gn
i
tive
a
ppr
oa
ch
a
n
d
a
cqu
is
iti
o
n
o
f
i
n
ter
p
e
r
so
nal
pr
o
b
le
m-sol
v
in
g
sk
ills.
The
pro
g
r
a
m
i
n
c
l
u
d
e
s
t
w
o
b
a
s
i
c
s
t
a
g
e
s
.
T
h
e
w
o
r
d
s
t
a
u
g
h
t
i
n
th
e
f
ir
s
t
s
ta
g
e
a
r
e
v
e
r
y
im
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
f
o
r
t
h
e
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t
o
f
w
a
y
of
t
h
i
n
k
in
g
t
ha
t
he
l
p
s
t
o
s
olve
t
he
p
r
o
b
l
em
in
the
la
t
ter
pr
o
ce
ss.
A
c
ti
v
i
t
ies
h
e
l
p
t
h
e
c
h
i
ldr
e
n
t
o
unde
r
s
tan
d
w
ha
t
the
y a
n
d ot
he
r
i
nd
i
vid
ua
l
s fee
l
,
to r
ec
og
n
i
z
e
e
m
oti
o
ns
a
nd
t
o
u
nder
s
ta
n
d
t
ha
t
di
ffe
r
e
nt
i
n
d
i
v
i
dua
ls
m
i
gh
t
hav
e
dif
f
e
r
ent
emot
ion
s
.
On
e
of
t
he
m
a
i
n
ob
jec
t
i
v
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
pr
ogr
am
is
to
d
e
l
iver
the
c
hi
ldr
e
n
a
pr
ob
lem
-
sol
v
in
g
w
ay
o
f
th
ink
i
ng,
t
h
u
s
th
e
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
c
o
u
ld
ac
hie
v
e
a
m
o
r
e
a
dvanc
e
d
s
oc
ia
l
ada
p
ta
ti
on
w
it
h
the
i
r
s
ur
r
o
u
n
d
in
gs.
In
t
h
i
s
re
sp
ect
,
ch
il
d
r
en
b
e
c
o
m
e
f
am
i
l
iar
w
ith
em
o
tio
ns
a
nd
f
e
el
i
ngs
o
f
ot
h
er
i
n
di
v
id
u
a
ls
thr
o
u
g
h
ex
pe
r
i
ence
s
suc
h
as
sha
r
i
ng,
w
a
it
in
g
f
or
the
ir
tur
n
,
co-
o
per
a
tio
n,
etc
.
[
34]
.
The
I
CP
S
p
r
o
gr
am
in
c
l
ude
s
a
wi
de
r
a
n
ge
o
f
act
i
v
ities
,
s
ince
i
t
is
a
p
rogram
tha
t
a
llow
s
c
hi
ldr
e
n
to
a
c
q
uir
e
t
a
r
ge
te
d
sk
i
l
ls
ba
se
d
on
ga
m
e
p
la
y.
S
t
o
r
y
t
e
ll
in
g,
g
a
m
e
,
r
ol
e
pla
y
in
g
m
e
t
h
o
d
s
a
r
e
e
x
am
pl
e
s
to
these
a
c
tiv
i
tie
s.
Ch
i
l
d
r
e
n
n
e
ed
to
e
nga
g
e
in
pe
er-sh
a
r
i
ng
i
n
th
e
c
oll
a
bo
r
a
tiv
e
bu
il
d
i
ng
a
cti
vi
ties,
w
h
ic
h
f
a
c
i
lita
te
s
pr
od
uc
t
i
o
n
o
f
thi
ngs
f
rom
sever
a
l
o
b
j
ec
t
s
,
and
peer
-sharin
g
p
roce
ss
h
e
l
ps
t
h
e
m
to
be
tte
r
c
o
mpr
e
h
e
nd
t
h
e
th
o
u
g
h
ts an
d em
oti
o
n
s
o
f
t
h
e
ir
pee
r
s.
S
e
v
er
a
l
r
e
s
e
a
r
c
h
(
[
23]
,
[3
6]
, [3
7]
,
[
2]
)
c
onclu
d
e
d
tha
t
c
o
l
la
b
o
r
at
ive
b
ui
ld
in
g
a
c
tiv
it
ies
impr
o
v
ed
t
he
c
hil
d
re
n’s
per
s
pe
c
t
i
v
e-
ta
ki
n
g
s
k
i
ll
s.
S
ocio-
d
r
am
a
p
la
ys
pr
ovi
de
c
h
ildr
e
n
w
i
t
h
bet
te
r
un
der
s
ta
nd
i
n
g
of
d
if
fe
r
e
nt
s
oc
i
a
l
rol
e
s
th
ro
ugh
i
mi
ta
t
i
on
a
n
d
w
ith
t
h
e
de
ve
l
opme
n
t
o
f
a
l
ter
na
t
i
ve
t
h
in
k
in
g
s
k
il
ls
t
h
r
ou
gh
a
d
o
p
tin
g
di
f
fe
r
e
n
t
r
o
les
.
B
u
r
n
s
[
26]
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
ne
d
t
h
at
s
oci
o
-
dr
am
ati
c
p
la
y
incr
ease
d
the
l
eve
l
o
f
per
s
pe
cti
v
e-ta
k
in
g
s
k
il
l
s
of
ch
i
ldren
si
gn
ifica
n
tl
y.
S
imilar
l
y,
B
urns
a
n
d
Br
a
i
ne
r
d
[
3
6]
,
A
kı
n
a
nd
Ö
n
de
r
[
1
7]
a
n
d
D
e
g
e
[
38]
c
onc
l
u
d
e
d th
a
t
d
ramat
i
c
ac
ti
v
iti
e
s
i
mpro
v
e
d
t
h
e
c
hil
dren
’s
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IJERE
I
S
S
N
:
2252-
88
22
T
h
e
Effec
t
s of “
I
Can Pr
ob
l
e
m
Solve
Pro
g
r
a
m
”
on
Chi
l
dr
en’s
…
(Ceren Ya
ğ
mu
r Aras)
11
5
perspe
c
tive
-
ta
k
in
g
s
k
i
l
ls.
S
toryte
l
lin
g,
w
i
th
i
n
t
h
e
sc
ope
o
f
t
h
e
I
C
P
S
p
rogr
a
m
,
contr
ib
u
t
e
s
the
d
e
v
e
lopm
ent
of
sk
i
l
ls
s
uc
h
as
to
te
l
l
s
tor
i
e
s
,
con
tem
p
l
a
tin
g
on
t
h
e
e
v
en
ts
a
nd
o
u
t
c
o
m
e
s
o
f
t
h
e
s
t
o
r
y
,
t
o
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
a
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
v
e
so
l
u
t
io
n
s
to
c
onf
l
ic
t
s
a
nd
pr
ob
l
e
ms
i
n
the
stor
y
an
d
in
thi
s
pr
o
cess,
s
to
ryt
e
ll
i
ng
b
e
c
o
mes
an
a
ct
ivit
y
th
a
t
sup
por
t
s
t
he
d
e
v
el
o
p
m
ent
o
f
p
e
rspec
tive-
t
a
k
ing
s
k
i
lls
thr
ou
gh
b
e
t
t
e
r
p
e
rc
ei
vin
g
t
h
e
emotio
n
s
a
n
d
t
hough
t
s
o
f
di
ffe
re
nt
i
nd
i
vidua
l
s
.
Lai
b
le
a
nd
S
o
n
g
[
39]
f
ou
n
d
t
ha
t
t
a
lki
ng
a
b
ou
t
em
o
tio
na
l
ex
per
i
e
n
ces
and
s
t
ory
te
ll
ing
sup
por
t
e
d
c
h
il
dren’s
e
mo
ti
o
n
al
p
er
spe
c
t
i
v
e
-
tak
i
n
g
s
k
ills.
S
i
mil
a
r
ly
,
Ten
e
nb
a
u
m
et
a
l.
[
2
5
]
c
on
cl
ude
d
th
at
tel
lin
g
em
o
tio
na
l
sce
n
ari
o
s
and
de
live
r
i
n
g
e
x
p
l
a
n
at
ory
ta
lks
ab
ou
t
the
prota
g
on
ist’s
em
otio
ns
w
i
thi
n
t
h
ese
sc
e
n
ario
s
h
e
l
ped
c
h
i
ld
ren
t
o
d
ev
el
op
e
moti
on
a
l
p
e
r
sp
e
c
t
i
v
e
s.
Gr
azz
ani
an
d
Ornag
h
i
[
4
0
]
i
d
e
n
tifi
e
d
th
a
t
stor
yt
e
lli
n
g
tha
t
inc
l
ude
d
em
o
t
i
o
nal
term
s
a
n
d
pla
y
in
g
gam
es
tha
t
e
n
c
o
u
rage
c
hil
d
re
n
to
u
se
t
he
se
t
e
r
ms
a
fte
r
stor
yt
e
lli
n
g
l
e
d
t
o
a
n
i
ncre
ase
i
n
c
hi
l
d
re
n
’
s
em
ot
i
o
na
l
per
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e-ta
ki
n
g
s
k
ills.
O
r
nag
h
i
e
t
a
l
.
[2
7]
i
nd
i
c
ate
d
tha
t
s
t
o
ry
tel
lin
g
tha
t
inc
lu
de
d
i
n
t
e
l
l
e
ct
u
a
l
te
r
ms
and
h
a
vi
n
g
c
o
nv
e
rsat
io
ns
a
nd
p
l
a
yi
n
g
l
a
ngu
a
g
e
g
a
mes
th
at
enc
our
age
ch
i
l
d
ren
to
u
til
ize
i
n
te
ll
ec
tua
l
term
s
c
onse
q
uen
t
t
o
s
t
ory
t
e
l
l
i
n
g
ha
d
p
o
s
i
t
i
ve
e
ffec
ts
o
n
ch
i
l
dr
en’s
c
o
gni
ti
v
e
p
ersp
e
c
tiv
e
-
t
a
k
i
ng
skil
l
s
.
Acco
rd
ing
t
o
Ü
nü
va
r
[41
]
,
a
ugm
e
n
te
d
la
n
gua
g
e
a
c
t
i
vi
tie
s
c
ontr
i
b
u
t
e
sign
ifica
n
tl
y
to
t
he
de
v
e
l
opme
n
t
o
f
c
h
i
l
d
re
n’s
per
cept
u
a
l
,
c
ogn
i
t
i
v
e a
n
d em
ot
iona
l
per
s
p
e
c
tive
-
ta
k
i
n
g
sk
i
lls.
A
ppro
x
i
ma
tel
y
one
m
ont
h
afte
r
the
p
o
s
t
-
t
e
s
t
w
er
e
appl
i
e
d,
t
he
c
h
ildre
n
i
n
t
he
ex
p
e
r
ime
n
ta
l
gr
ou
p
w
er
e
t
ested
for
re
t
e
nt
io
n
an
d
it
w
a
s
d
e
term
i
n
ed
t
ha
t
t
h
er
e
w
as
no
s
i
gnificant
difference
betw
e
e
n
t
h
e
p
o
s
t-te
st
score
s
a
n
d
t
he
r
e
ten
tio
n
tes
t
s
c
o
res
of
t
he
ch
il
d
ren
in
t
he
e
xp
e
r
ime
n
tal
gr
o
up.
T
h
i
s
fi
n
d
i
n
g
su
g
g
es
ts
tha
t
the
I
Ca
n
P
r
oblem
S
olve
P
rogra
m
c
on
t
in
ue
d
t
o
ha
ve
e
ffec
t
o
n
the
c
hi
ld
r
en’s
per
s
pe
c
t
i
v
e-ta
ki
n
g
s
ki
ll
s,
t
hus
t
he
effec
t
c
o
u
l
d
be
cons
ide
r
ed
a
s
perm
anen
t.
S
evera
l
in
terve
n
t
i
on
p
ro
gra
m
s
that
i
ncl
u
ded
si
milar
a
c
t
i
v
itie
s
w
e
re
als
o
i
den
t
ifie
d
t
o
h
a
v
e
per
m
a
n
en
t
e
f
fe
c
t
s
o
n
t
he
c
hi
ldre
n’
s
per
spec
ti
ve-t
aki
n
g
sk
i
lls.
D
ege
[
38]
d
e
ter
mine
d
tha
t the dram
at
ic p
la
y
a
ct
i
v
it
i
es
gi
ve
n t
h
ro
u
gh i
llus
tra
t
e
d
s
to
r
y
b
oo
ks w
ere
e
ffe
c
tive
on the
pe
rs
pect
i
v
e-ta
k
ing
sk
i
l
ls
o
f
s
i
x-ye
a
r-olds,
a
n
d
t
h
i
s
effec
t
p
e
r
s
i
s
t
ed
i
n
the
r
e
te
n
t
ion
te
st.
G
ö
z
ün-K
a
hram
an
[
42]
r
eve
ale
d
t
h
at
t
he
in
t
e
l
l
e
c
t-ba
sed
tr
ain
ing
progr
am
h
ad
a
s
ig
n
i
fica
nt
e
ffe
c
t
o
n
t
h
e
co
gn
i
tive
perspe
ct
ive
-
ta
ki
n
g
s
ki
lls
o
f
t
h
e
4
8
-
60-m
o
nths
ch
i
ldr
en,
and
t
h
e
reten
t
io
n
te
st t
h
a
t
t
h
ey perfor
m
e
d
a
m
onth
l
a
ter
r
e
vea
l
e
d
t
hat t
he
e
ffe
c
t
r
em
ained
the
sam
e.
Ci
ga
la
et
a
l
.
[4
3],
i
n
t
he
ir
s
tu
dy
foc
u
sin
g
o
n
the
e
f
fe
c
ts
of
eco
l
o
g
y
e
duca
tio
n
on
pe
rspec
t
ive
-
ta
k
i
n
g
sk
i
l
ls,
de
mo
ns
trate
d
t
ha
t
t
h
e
e
ffe
c
t
co
n
tin
ue
d
thr
oug
h
a
me
asur
emen
t
ca
rri
ed
ou
t
si
x
mont
hs
a
ft
er
t
h
e
com
p
le
t
i
on
o
f
t
heir
s
tud
y
.
4.
CONCL
U
S
ION
We
f
ou
n
d
t
hat
ther
e
was
no
s
i
gn
ifica
n
t
d
i
f
f
er
ence
b
e
t
we
en
t
h
e
P
TC
p
r
e-tes
t
sc
ores
o
f
the
c
h
i
ldr
en
in
expe
r
i
me
n
t
a
l
,
con
t
ro
l
1
a
nd
con
t
ro
l
2
gro
u
p
s.
H
ow
e
v
er,
c
ons
eq
ue
nt
t
o
t
h
e
com
p
le
ti
o
n
o
f
th
e
ICP
S
P
rogr
am
,
t
h
e
sco
r
es
o
f
th
e
Pe
rsp
e
ct
iv
e
-
t
a
ki
ng
T
est
for
C
h
il
d
r
en
(
PTC
)
,
a
dm
i
n
is
ter
e
d
a
s
a
post-te
st
t
o
the
e
x
p
e
ri
me
ntal,
con
tro
l
1
a
n
d
con
tro
l
2
gr
ou
ps,
i
n
d
ica
te
d
a
si
gn
ifica
n
t
d
iffe
r
e
nc
e
o
n
b
e
h
al
f
o
f
e
xper
im
enta
l
g
rou
p
.
P
e
rspecti
v
e-
t
a
kin
g
s
ki
l
ls
o
f
t
he
ch
i
ldre
n
i
n
t
he
e
x
p
e
r
ime
n
ta
l
g
ro
up
i
n
c
rea
s
e
d
s
i
gni
fi
c
a
nt
ly
.
In
thi
s
resp
ec
t
,
I
Ca
n
P
r
obl
em
S
olve
P
r
o
g
r
am
w
as
effec
ti
ve
o
n
t
h
e
pe
rspec
ti
v
e-ta
ki
ng
s
ki
ll
s
o
f
p
re
sc
ho
ol
c
h
i
ld
ren
.
F
u
r
t
he
rm
o
r
e
i
t
w
a
s
d
e
t
e
r
m
ine
d
t
h
a
t
t
her
e
w
as
n
o
si
gn
i
f
ica
n
t
di
ffe
re
nc
e
bet
w
ee
n
the
P
T
C
pos
t-te
st
s
c
o
re
s
a
n
d
rete
n
t
i
o
n
t
e
st
s
core
s
of
the
c
hi
ldr
en
in
t
he
exper
im
enta
l
g
rou
p
.
In
t
hi
s
r
egar
d
,
it
c
ou
l
d
b
e
a
s
se
rted
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
effec
t
o
f t
h
e
IC
P
S
progr
am
on the
per
s
pe
c
t
ive
-
tak
i
n
g
sk
i
ll
s
o
f
pre
s
c
h
o
o
l
chi
l
d
ren
w
a
s
p
e
rm
anent.
In
t
he
lig
h
t
o
f
t
h
ese
r
esu
lts
,
w
e
g
ive
so
m
e
s
ugge
sti
o
n
to
e
duca
t
o
rs
a
nd
rese
arc
h
er
s.
P
resc
hool
teac
hers
c
o
u
ld
b
e
i
n
form
ed
a
bo
u
t
t
he
s
u
p
por
t
i
ng
a
p
p
roac
he
s
i
n
d
e
v
elop
in
g
th
e
c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
'
s
p
ersp
e
c
ti
v
e
-t
aki
ng
ski
l
l
s
du
r
ing
t
h
e
p
r
e
s
c
hool
peri
od
.
F
o
r
t
h
a
t
p
u
r
po
se,
t
h
ey
c
o
u
l
d
part
ic
ip
ate
i
n
i
n-se
rv
ic
e
train
i
ng
a
c
t
i
v
i
tie
s,
sem
i
na
rs,
c
o
nfere
n
ce
s,
w
orks
ho
ps.
Tea
c
h
er
s
c
o
uld
p
l
a
n
a
n
d
i
m
p
le
me
nt
a
cti
v
i
t
ies
t
h
a
t
w
ou
ld
h
e
l
p
c
h
ild
re
n
to
deve
l
o
p
t
h
e
i
r
p
e
rspe
ct
i
v
e
s
.
Th
ey
c
ou
l
d
a
lso
r
ead
i
n
f
orm
a
t
i
v
e
m
a
teria
l
a
nd
try
to
b
e
c
o
m
e
a
r
ole
m
o
de
l
for
t
h
e
chi
l
d
ren.
Co
lla
bora
t
i
o
n
w
i
th
p
ar
en
ts
w
o
u
l
d
be
u
sef
u
l
t
o
s
u
p
p
o
rt
t
he
pers
pec
ti
ve-
t
a
ki
ng
sk
il
ls
of
t
he
c
h
i
l
dre
n.
Pre
s
e
n
t
re
sea
r
ch
f
o
c
u
s
ed
on
t
h
e
ef
fe
ct
s
of
I
C
P
S
Pro
g
r
a
m
o
n
th
e
p
e
rsp
e
c
tiv
e
-
t
a
k
i
ng
s
ki
ll
s
of
f
iv
e
-
yea
r
-o
l
d
chi
l
d
ren.
F
urth
er
r
e
s
ear
ch
coul
d
foc
u
s
o
n
d
iffere
n
t
a
g
e
g
r
o
u
p
s
in
p
re
scho
ol
p
e
r
io
d
.
Dif
fe
rent
a
p
pli
c
a
t
i
on
s,
me
tho
d
s
a
nd
t
echn
i
que
s
c
o
u
l
d
be
s
cru
ti
n
iz
ed
t
o
su
p
port
the
de
ve
l
o
pme
n
t
o
f
t
he
p
e
r
spect
i
v
e-ta
kin
g
ski
l
l
s
of
c
h
i
l
dr
e
n.
REFE
RENCES
[1]
D.
Asl
an,
“O
kul
ö
ncesi
dö
ne
m
ço
c
u
kl
arın
ın
b
akı
ş
açı
s
ı
alm
a
bece
ri
lerine
e
mpati
eğit
i
m
p
rogramının
e
tk
i
s
i
n
in
in
celenm
e
s
i
[Invest
ig
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
e
m
p
at
hy
tra
i
n
i
n
g
p
rogram
’s
e
ffect
o
n
pres
choo
lers
’
persp
ecti
v
e
tak
i
n
g
s
k
i
lls].
Un
pu
bli
s
h
e
d
d
o
c
t
oral
d
i
s
sert
ati
on,
A
n
k
ara
U
n
i
v
ersity
,
A
n
k
a
ra,
T
u
r
k
e
y, 2
01
7.
[2]
T.
Ş
ener,
“
4
-
5 yaş an
aok
u
l
u
ço
c
ukl
arın
da d
ramatik
oy
u
n
u
n
ve
i
nş
a o
yun
un
un
bak
ı
ş
açıs
ı
alm
a
bece
risin
e
etk
isi [T
he
Eff
ects
o
f
d
ram
a
t
i
c
p
l
ay
a
nd
c
o
n
s
t
ructiv
e
pl
ay
i
n
pers
pecti
v
e
t
aki
n
g
abi
lity
i
n
4-5
years
ol
d
chil
dren]
”
,
Unpublished
m
ast
e
r’s
t
hesi
s,
An
k
ara
Un
iv
eristy,
A
n
k
ara,
T
urkey,
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[3]
A.
Çağdaş
and
Z. Ş. S
eçer, “
A
nne-baba
eğit
imi [P
arent
s
ed
u
cati
o
n
]
”
,
Konya,
E
ğ
itim Pub
lish
i
ng, 2
005.
[4]
M.
V
.
Cox
“Perspecti
v
e
abi
l
ity
:
The
conditions
o
f
ch
ange”,
Ch
ild
Develo
p
m
e
nt
,
v
ol/is
sue:
48(4),
p
p
.1
72
4-1
7
2
7
,
1
97
7.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
SSN: 2252-
8822
IJERE
V
ol
.
7,
N
o.
2,
June
2
0
18 :
1
0
9
– 1
17
11
6
[5]
M
.
L
au
rendeau
a
nd
A
.
P
i
n
a
rd,
“T
he
d
e
v
elo
p
m
e
nt
o
f
t
h
e
con
cept
of
s
p
ace
in
t
he
c
hi
ld
”,
I
n
t
ernati
o
n
al
U
niv
e
rs
i
t
i
e
s
Press,
4
65
, New York
, 19
7
0
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[6]
Z.
S
.
Masan
g
k
ay
,
K.
A
.
McClu
s
key
,
C.
W.
M
cIntyr
e,
J
.
S
ims-K
nig
h
t,
B
.
E.
V
au
ghn
a
nd
J
.
H.
F
l
a
vell
,
“Th
e
earl
y
dev
elo
pm
ent
o
f
i
nf
eren
ces
ab
out
t
he
v
isu
al
percep
t
s
o
f
o
t
hers
”,
Ch
i
l
d Devel
op
ment,
vo
l
.
4
5
,
p
p
.3
57
-36
6
, 1
97
4.
[7]
H.
B
o
r
ke
“
Pi
aget’s
m
ou
nt
ains
r
evi
s
ited
:
C
h
a
nges
in
t
h
e
e
go
centr
i
c
l
an
ds
ca
p
e”,
De
v
e
lo
pme
nta
l P
s
y
c
h
olog
y
,
vo
l/issue:
1
1(2),
pp
.
2
4
0
–
243
,
1
975.
[8]
L.
S
.
Li
ben
and
B.
B
el
knap
“
I
ntel
l
ectu
a
l realism: Im
p
licat
ions
f
o
r i
n
v
e
s
t
i
g
atio
ns o
f p
e
rcept
u
al
p
e
rsp
ectiv
e
ta
king
i
n
yo
un
g
c
h
ild
r
e
n”
Child
Devel
op
ment
, vo
l
/
i
ssue:
52
,
pp.
9
2
1–
924
,
1
98
1.
[9]
J.
H
.
F
l
avell,
B
.
A.
E
v
erett
,
K
.
C
roft
and
E
.
R.
F
l
avell,
“Yo
ung
chi
l
dren
's
k
nowl
edge
abo
ut
v
is
ual
p
erce
p
ti
on:
F
u
rt
her
ev
iden
ce
f
o
r
the
Level
1
–
L
e
vel
2
disti
n
c
t
i
o
n
”
,
D
evelop
m
en
t
a
l
Ps
ychol
og
y
,
vo
l/
issue
:
17(1),
pp
.
99
-
10
3,
1
98
1
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[10]
P
.
L
i
ght
a
nd
C
.
Ni
x,
“
O
w
n
v
i
e
w
v
ersus
goo
d
vi
ew
i
n
a
p
e
rspect
iv
e-taki
ng
t
ask
”,
Chil
d Develop
ment
,
vo
l.
5
4,
p
p
.7
9–
87
, 19
8
3
.
[11]
L.
A
.
Ku
rdek,
“P
ercep
tual
,
cog
n
i
t
iv
e,
a
nd
a
ff
ectiv
e
persp
e
ctiv
e
t
a
kin
g
a
n
d
e
m
pa
th
y
in
kind
e
rga
r
te
n
th
ro
ug
h
th
ird
-
grad
e
chi
l
dren
”,
P
aper
p
r
e
sen
t
ed
a
t
th
e
Bien
nial
M
eeti
n
g
of
t
he
S
o
c
iet
y
f
or
R
e
s
earch
i
n
Ch
ild
D
ev
elo
p
m
e
nt,
De
nv
e
r
, Colora
d
o
,
1
97
5.
[12]
E.
B
.
Dicks
t
ei
n
an
d
D.
R
.
W
a
rren
,
“
Ro
l
e
-tak
ing
d
e
ficit
s
i
n
lear
n
i
ng
d
isab
led
chi
l
d
r
en”,
Jo
urna
l of Lea
r
n
i
n
g
Di
sab
ili
ties
,
vo
l/
issue
:
13
(
7)
, pp
.
33
-37
, 19
8
0
.
[13]
E.
Y
ılmaz
an
d
K.
T
epeli
“
60-72
A
y
lı
k
çocu
kl
a
r
ın
s
o
s
yal
p
r
oblem
çözm
e
becerilerin
i
n
d
u
y
guları
an
lam
a
b
eceril
eri
açıs
ı
nd
an
i
n
celenm
e
s
i
[
Ex
am
i
n
at
io
n
o
f
s
oc
i
a
l
pro
b
lem
solvin
g
sk
il
ls
o
f
6
0
-
7
2
m
o
nt
hs
o
ld
c
h
i
ld
r
e
n
in
t
e
r
m
s
o
f
t
h
e
i
r
em
otion
u
nderstan
d
i
ng
skill
s
]
”
,
T
u
r
ke
y
So
c
i
al
S
t
ud
ies
Jou
r
n
a
l
,
v
ol
/i
ssu
e
:
2(17
),
p
p.
1
17
-
130
,
2
013.
[14]
H.
P
.
P
illow
and
S.
W
ee
d,
“
Preschool
chi
l
dren’s
u
se
o
f
i
n
f
o
r
m
at
io
n
abo
u
t
ag
e
an
d
percep
tua
l
t
o
inf
er
an
ot
h
e
r
pers
on
’s
k
nowled
ge”,
Jo
ur
na
l of
G
eenet
ic P
s
ycholo
g
y,
vo
l/issue:
1
58 (3), pp.365-
3
76, 1997.
[15]
Ö.
B
al
a
nd
F
.
T
e
mel,
“
Okul
ö
n
ces
i
eğitim
k
urumlar
ı
na
d
evam
e
den
4
-
6
yaş
ç
o
cu
kları
n
ı
n
k
i
ş
iler
ar
as
ı
prob
lem
çözm
e
ve
b
akı
ş
açıs
ı
a
l
m
a
b
e
ceril
eri
arası
n
d
a
ki
i
li
şkinin
i
ncel
enmesi
[
Examini
ng
the
Re
lationship
be
tween
P
r
esch
ool
I
n
t
erp
erso
n
al
P
rob
l
em
S
ol
vi
ng
S
k
ill
s
an
d
P
erspect
iv
e
T
a
ki
ng
S
k
ill
s
o
f
Ch
ild
r
en
A
tten
di
ng
P
r
esch
oo
l
Ed
ucati
o
n
P
r
o
g
ram
s
b
et
ween
4
T
o
6
Years
of
A
ge]
”
,
Trakya
Ü
n
i
v
e
r
sitesi E
ğ
itim
Fakültesi
Dergi
s
i
,
vol/i
ss
ue
:
1
(
4),
p
p
.1
56
-16
9
, 2
01
4.
[16]
R.
A
rı
a
n
d
Z
.
S
eçer
“
O
kul
ö
ncesi
dö
nem
d
eki
çocu
kları
n
d
uy
gu
sal
yü
z
if
adelerin
i
t
a
nım
a
b
eceril
erin
in
çeşitli
değ
i
ş
k
enl
e
r
açıs
ı
nd
an
i
ncel
e
n
m
e
si
[
Exami
n
i
n
g
th
e
s
k
i
l
l
s
o
f
reco
gn
izi
ng
em
oti
ona
l
f
acial
e
xpres
sion
s
o
f
p
resch
ool
chi
l
d
r
en
i
n
t
erm
s
o
f
v
ari
o
u
s
v
ari
abl
es]
”,
S
e
lç
u
k
Ü
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
e
s
i
S
o
s
y
a
l
B
i
li
ml
e
r
En
st
i
t
ü
sü
De
r
g
is
i,
Vol.
1
1,
p
p
.6
7- 8
5,
20
0
4
.
[17]
Y.
A
kın
and
A.
Ö
n
d
er,
“Altı
yaş
gru
b
u
çocu
kl
arı
n
d
a
b
aş
kas
ı
nın
b
ak
ış
açısını
a
lm
a
yet
i
s
i
ü
zerin
de
e
ğ
i
t
i
c
i
d
ram
a
pro
g
ram
ı
n
ı
n ve
a
ile
t
utu
m
l
a
rının
etk
i
si [T
h
e eff
ect o
f
ed
ucat
io
n
a
l dram
a and
paren
t
al
attit
udes
o
n
persp
e
c
t
i
v
e
tak
in
g
a
b
il
it
i
e
s
o
f
s
ix
y
e
a
r
o
ld
p
r
e
s
c
h
ool
child
ren
]
”,
I
n G
.
Hak
tan
ı
r
& T. Gü
l
er
(
Ed
s.)
,
OME
P
W
o
r
l
d
C
o
u
n
c
il
a
nd
Co
nfe
r
e
n
c
e
(p
p.4
6
9
-
48
2). İs
t
a
n
bu
l,
Ya
-
Pa
Pub
lish
i
ng
, 2
00
3.
[18]
S
.
E
rd
oğ
an,
“
A
ltı
yaş
grub
u
çocuk
l
arın
b
ak
ış
a
ç
ı
sı
a
lm
a
beceri
l
eri
i
l
e
m
a
t
e
matik
b
eceril
erinin
k
arşı
laştırılm
ası
[Com
pari
so
n of
si
x
y
ears
old
ch
il
d
r
en'
s
m
at
hem
atical abil
i
t
i
es
and
perspecti
v
e taki
ng
s
kills
]”,
Paper
presented at
t
he
con
g
ress
o
f
XV
I
II.
Tu
rkish
Na
t
i
o
n
al
E
du
cati
on
S
c
ience
,
İz
m
i
r
,
T
ü
r
kiye
,
2
00
9.
[19]
A.
G
ü
ltek
i
n,
“
Anao
ku
lun
a
d
ev
a
m
e
d
e
n
6
y
a
şı
nda
k
i
ç
o
c
ukl
arın
b
aşk
aları
n
ın
b
ak
ış
açı
sı
n
ı
a
lm
a
b
eceris
i
ile
ö
zs
ayg
ı
dü
zeyl
e
ri
a
rası
ndak
i
i
liş
k
i
n
i
n
i
ncelen
m
e
si
[
E
x
am
inin
g
t
h
e
relat
ion
bet
ween
t
he
skill
of
g
etting
perspect
ive
an
d
self
esteem
l
evel
o
f
6-year-o
ld
c
h
i
l
d
ren
atten
d
i
n
g
k
i
n
d
erg
a
rt
en]
”,
U
npu
blis
hed
mas
t
er’s
t
hes
i
s
,
G
azi
U
ni
versity,
An
kara,
T
urk
ey,
2
00
6.
[20]
C.
T
an,
“Th
e
e
ffects
o
f
t
hem
a
ti
c
f
a
n
t
asy
play
o
n
the
pers
pect
iv
e-t
aki
ng
abi
l
ity
o
f
pres
cho
o
l
chi
l
d
r
en”,
U
n
bub
li
sh
ed
do
cto
r
a
l
diss
e
rtat
io
n
,
N
ati
o
n
a
l
Uni
v
ersity
o
f
S
i
ngapo
re,
S
in
gap
ore,
1
99
2.
[21]
C.
T
an-N
i
a
m
,
“
Th
em
a
tic
f
anta
s
y
p
lay:
E
ff
e
c
ts
o
n
the
perspect
ive
-t
aki
ng
abi
l
it
y
o
f
p
rescho
ol
chi
ld
ren”,
Int
e
rna
t
i
o
n
a
l
Jo
u
r
n
a
l of Earl
y Y
e
ar
s E
ducati
on,
v
o
l/issue:
2(1
),
p
p.5
-
16
, 20
0
3
.
[22]
A.
L
.
S
.
Ping
,
“
A
'n
e
w
'
p
r
e
s
c
hool
c
u
rric
u
lu
m
th
a
t
p
u
t
s
p
l
a
y
o
n
to
p:
D
é
j
à
vu
o
r
s
econd
ch
anc
e
?”,
U
n
pub
li
sh
ed
do
cto
r
a
l
d
iss
ertat
io
n
,
D
urh
am
Univ
e
r
s
i
t
y
,
El
vet,
Du
r
ham
,
U
K,
2
0
05.
[23]
S
.
M
. Bu
rns, “
The eff
ects
o
f
t
wo
s
ocial play
e
x
p
eri
e
nces
o
n
per
s
p
ecti
v
e t
a
ki
ng in
fou
r and
fiv
e
year o
ld
ch
il
dren”,
Un
pu
bli
s
h
ed
d
oc
t
oral
d
i
s
sert
ati
on,
U
niv
ersi
t
y
o
f
W
e
s
t
ern
O
ntari
o
,
O
ntario,
L
ond
o
n
,
UK,
197
8.
[24]
E.
W
entink
,
B
.
S
m
i
t
svan-Sonsb
eek
, G.
L
eck
i
e
an
d
P.
S
m
its, “The
Eff
ect
o
f a S
o
c
i
al
P
e
rsp
e
c
t
iv
e-tak
i
ng
Trai
ning
on
Ro
le-t
aki
n
g
Abi
lity
a
nd
S
ocial
In
teract
ion
i
n
P
resc
hoo
l
a
n
d
Elem
en
tary
S
choo
l
Ch
il
dren
”
,
P
aper
pres
ented
at
t
he
T
h
i
rd
B
ien
n
i
a
l
Meet
in
g
o
f
t
he
I
nt
ernat
i
o
n
al
S
o
ci
ety
f
o
r
th
e
Stud
y
of
B
ehavi
o
ral
D
e
velo
pm
ent,
Gui
l
d
f
o
r
d,
Great
Britain
, 19
7
5
.
[25]
H.
R
.
Tenen
b
au
m,
L.
Al
fieri,
P
.
J.
B
roo
k
s
and
G.
Du
nn
e,
“
T
h
e ef
fect
s of
exp
lanat
o
ry
con
v
ersat
i
o
n
s
o
n
chi
l
d
r
en
's
em
o
t
i
o
n
u
nders
tandi
ng”,
British Journal
o
f
Developm
e
ntal
P
sychology
,
vol/issue:
2
6(2),
p
p
.2
49
-26
3
, 2
00
8.
[26]
W.
A
.
Cl
emen
ts
,
C.
L
.
Ru
s
t
in
a
nd
S
.
M
cCal
lu
m
,
“
P
r
o
m
o
t
i
n
g
t
h
e
tr
ansition
f
r
o
m
i
mplicit
to
e
xpl
i
cit
unders
tandi
n
g:
A
t
r
a
i
n
i
n
g
s
tu
dy
of
f
a
l
se
b
eli
e
f”,
Devel
opm
ent
al
S
ci
ence
,
v
ol
/i
ssu
e:
3(1),
pp.
81
-92
,
20
00
.
[27]
V. Orn
a
g
hi
, J. Brock
m
e
ier an
d I.
G
. G
a
vazzi
, “
T
he rol
e o
f
lang
u
ag
e
gam
e
s
in
c
hildren'
s
u
nders
tan
d
ing
o
f
m
e
nt
al
st
ates: A
trai
n
i
n
g
s
t
udy
”,
Jo
ur
na
l
of Co
gniti
on and
Develo
p
men
t
,
vo
l/issue:
1
2
(
2),
p
p
.
23
9-25
9,
2
0
1
1
.
[28]
M
.
S
hu
re,
“
T
he
P
IP
S
T
est
M
anual
”
, P
h
ilad
e
lp
h
i
a, Dep
artm
ent o
f
P
sy
c
h
ol
og
y
,
D
re
xel
Univ
ersity,
1
9
92
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IJERE
I
S
S
N
:
2252-
88
22
T
h
e
Effec
t
s of “
I
Can Pr
ob
l
e
m
Solve
Pro
g
r
a
m
”
on
Chi
l
dr
en’s
…
(Ceren Ya
ğ
mu
r Aras)
11
7
[29]
S.
Ö
ğül
müş,
“
Kişi
l
e
r
arası
soru
n
çözme
beceril
e
r
i
v
e
eğitimi
[I
nterpersonal
p
roblem
s
o
l
vi
ng
abilit
i
e
s
and
teach
ing
]
”, A
nkara,
No
bel P
ublis
hi
ng, 2
001.
[30]
E.
K
argı,
“B
iliş
sel
yakl
aşıma
da
yalı
k
işiler
arası
sor
u
n
çözme
b
e
cerileri
k
azandırm
a
(BSÇ)
program
ı
nın
etkilil
i
ğ
i
:
Ok
ul
ön
cesi dö
n
e
m
ço
cukl
arı ü
zerin
e bi
r araşt
ı
rm
a [t
he eff
ecti
v
en
ess
of t
he int
erpers
onal
co
gni
tive p
rob
l
em
-solv
i
n
g
pro
g
ram
:
a
n
i
nve
s
t
i
g
a
t
io
n
ch
il
dren
w
ho
a
tt
end
pres
cho
o
l]
”,
U
n
p
u
blish
e
d
d
o
c
to
ral
di
ssert
ati
on,
A
nk
ara
Uni
v
ers
i
ty
,
An
kara,
T
urk
e
y,
2
00
9.
[31]
C.
T
an
gü
l
Özcan
,
“
K
i
ş
i
l
erarası
S
o
run
Çözme
Eğ
it
imi
n
i
n
D
i
k
k
a
t
E
k
si
kliği
H
i
perak
t
i
v
ite
B
ozu
k
l
uğu
O
l
a
n
Çocu
klard
a
ki
K
arşı
G
e
l
m
e
B
e
l
i
r
til
e
ri
Ü
zeri
n
e
Etki
leri
[
Ef
fects
o
f
t
he
t
eaching
an
i
nterpe
rs
onal
c
o
g
nitive
problem
-
so
lving
st
rategy
on
o
ppo
siti
on
a
l
d
e
f
i
a
n
t
p
roblem
s
in
c
hildren
w
it
h
attent
io
n
defi
cit
h
y
p
e
ract
ivit
y
d
i
so
rder]
”
,
Un
pu
bli
s
h
e
d
d
o
c
t
oral
d
i
s
sert
ati
on,
G
ülh
a
ne
A
sk
eri
Tıp
Ak
adem
isi
, Ank
ara, T
u
r
k
e
y,
20
0
7
.
[32]
D.
Aslan
a
n
d
A
.
Kö
ks
al-Ak
yol,
“
Ç
ocu
k
l
a
r
i
ç
in
B
akı
ş
A
çısı
A
lma
T
est
i
(
ÇBT)’n
in
g
el
işti
rilmes
i
[Th
e
d
evel
opm
en
t
of
P
ers
p
ecti
v
e Taki
ng
Tes
t
f
o
r
Chi
l
d
r
en
(
P
T
C)]
,
”
Ahi E
v
ran Ünive
r
sitesi
K
ı
r
ş
ehir
E
ğ
it
i
m
F
a
kültesi Dergisi
(
K
EFAD
),
vol/i
ssue:
17
(3),
p
p
.
207-2
21,
2
0
0
6
.
[33]
A. Köksal
-Ak
yol an
d
D
. A
s
l
an
,
“T
he d
evel
op
men
t
of
t
h
e em
pat
h
s
c
ale f
o
r ch
ild
r
en (E
S
C)”,
In M
.
Y
asar, O
.
O
zgun
,
&
J.
G
alb
r
aith
(
Ed
s.),
Contemp
o
r
a
ry P
e
rs
pectives a
n
d
Resea
r
ch
on
Ear
l
y Chil
dho
od
Ed
uca
tio
n
(
pp.113-123),
New
castl
e, Cambri
d
g
e
S
cho
l
ar Pu
b
lish
i
n
g
,
201
4
.
[34]
S
.
Ö
ğülm
ü
ş, “
Kişiler aras
ı s
o
ru
n
çö
zm
e beceri
l
eri v
e
eği
timi [I
nterp
e
rson
al
p
rob
l
e
m
s
ol
v
i
n
g
s
kill
s
and
i
ts
trai
n
i
ng]
”
,
A
n
k
a
r
a,
N
ob
el
P
u
b
lish
i
n
g
,
20
01.
[35]
M.
B
.
Shure
,
“
I
can
p
roblem
s
o
l
ve
(IC
PS):
A
n
i
n
t
e
rpers
onal
cogn
it
iv
e
p
r
ob
l
e
m
s
o
l
v
in
g
pro
g
r
a
m
fo
r
chi
l
d
r
en
”,
R
e
si
d
e
nt
ial
Treat
m
en
t f
o
r Ch
i
l
d
r
en
&
Y
out
h
,
vol/is
sue:
18
(3),
pp.
3-1
4
,
200
1.
[36]
S
.
M
.
Burns
an
d
C.
J
.
Brai
nerd
,
“Eff
ect
s
of
c
on
st
ructi
v
e
and
dr
am
ati
c
p
l
a
y
o
n
p
ersp
ecti
v
e
t
a
king
in
v
ery
yo
un
g
chi
l
d
r
en
”,
D
evelop
men
t
a
l
Psycho
l
o
g
y
,
vo
l/iss
u
e: 15(5),
pp.
512-521,
1979.
[37]
B.
D
eBellef
e
uille,
“
The
i
n
flu
e
n
ce
of
c
oo
perat
i
v
e
l
earnin
g
activ
it
ies
on
t
he
p
erspe
c
tive
tak
i
ng
a
bi
lit
y
and
prosoci
a
l
beh
a
vi
our
o
f
ki
nderg
arten
s
t
u
d
en
ts
”,
U
n
p
u
b
lish
e
d
d
o
cto
r
al
d
iss
e
r
t
a
t
i
o
n
,
M
c
G
il
l
U
n
i
v
e
r
si
ty
,
M
o
n
t
r
e
a
l
,
Ca
n
a
da
, 1
99
1.
[38]
Ö.
Deg
e
,
“Resim
li
h
i
k
ây
e
ki
taplarıyla
v
eril
en
d
ram
a
ti
k
et
k
i
n
l
ik
u
y
gu
lam
a
ları
n
ı
n
al
tı
y
aş
ç
o
c
ukl
arının
b
ak
ış
açıs
ı
kazan
ım
ları
na
e
tk
isin
in
i
ncel
enmes
i
i
n
celen
mes
i
[
i
n
v
e
sti
g
atio
n
of
t
he
e
ff
ects
o
f
d
ram
a
tic
p
lay
practi
ce
giv
e
n
wit
h
pi
ctu
r
e
based
sto
r
y
b
ook
s
o
n
poi
n
t
o
f
view
g
a
i
ns for
s
ix
y
ear-o
ld
c
hi
ld
ren
g
ro
up
s]
”,
U
npubl
is
hed
master’s
t
h
e
sis,
Gazi
U
niv
e
rs
it
y,
A
nk
ara,
T
urkey
,
2
00
8.
[39]
D.
J
.
Lai
b
l
e
a
nd
J
.
S
o
ng,
“
Con
s
t
r
uct
i
ng
e
m
o
tio
n
al
a
n
d
r
el
ati
ona
l
und
ers
t
an
di
ng:
T
h
e
r
ole
of
a
ff
ect
a
nd
m
oth
e
r-ch
i
l
d
di
sco
u
rse”,
Merr
ill-
P
a
lmer Quarterl
y
,
vol/
i
s
s
u
e
:
52(1
)
,
p
p
.
44
-69,
200
6.
[40]
I.
Grazzani
an
d
V.
O
rn
aghi,
“Em
o
tio
nal
state
talk
a
nd
e
m
o
tio
n
un
de
rs
tand
in
g
:
A
t
ra
in
ing
stu
dy
w
i
t
h
p
resch
o
o
l
chi
l
d
r
en
”,
Jo
ur
n
a
l
of Chil
d
L
a
nguag
e
,
vol/
issue
:
38
(5), p
p.11
2
4
-1
13
9, 2
01
1.
[41]
G.
Ün
üv
ar,
“Oku
l
önces
i
eğ
i
t
im
k
u
r
u
m
l
a
rı
na
d
ev
am
e
den
4
-
5
yaş
çocu
kl
arınd
a
,
zen
gi
nl
eştirilmiş
T
ürkçe
di
l
etk
i
nlikleri
n
i
n
ba
k
ı
ş
açıs
ı
a
lm
a
b
eceri
s
i
n
e
v
e
i
f
a
de
e
d
i
ci
d
il
d
üzey
leri
ne
e
tk
isinin
i
ncel
enm
e
si
[
Th
e
Anal
ize
f
o
r
the
chi
l
d
r
en
c
ontin
u
o
ui
ng
n
u
rsery
scho
ol
b
etw
e
en
f
our
a
nd
f
ive
ag
es
r
iched
T
u
rkish
lan
guag
e
a
ct
iv
it
es
p
ers
p
ecti
v
e
tak
i
n
g
a
nd
th
e
l
a
vel
o
f
e
xp
resi
ng
l
a
n
gu
age]”,
U
n
p
u
b
lish
e
d
m
a
ste
r’s
t
hesis
,
S
el
çuk
Un
iv
ersi
ty
,
K
ony
a,
Tu
rkey,
20
06.
[42]
Ö.
G
.
G
ö
zü
n-Kahram
an,
“
Z
i
h
i
n
k
u
r
am
ına
d
a
yalı
e
ğ
itim
pro
g
ram
ı
nın
4
8
-
60
a
y
lık
ç
oc
u
k
la
rın
biliş
s
el
b
akış
açısı
beceri
l
eri
ve
p
roso
sy
al
d
av
ranışları
ü
zerin
deki
e
tki
s
i
n
i
n
i
n
cel
en
mes
i
[Inv
e
stigatio
n
o
f
t
h
e
t
heo
r
y
of
m
in
d
bas
e
d
trai
n
i
ng
p
r
ogram
’s
e
ff
ect
s
on
t
he
4
8
-
60
m
o
n
t
h
s
-
old
chil
dren
’s
c
og
ni
tiv
e
p
ersp
ecti
v
e
tak
i
ng
s
k
i
ll
s
and
pros
oc
ial
beh
a
vi
ors]
”,
U
npub
lish
e
d
d
o
cto
r
al
d
is
sert
a
t
i
o
n
,
Gazi
U
n
i
v
e
rsity
,
An
kara,
T
urk
e
y,
2
01
2.
[43]
A
.
C
i
g
a
l
a
,
A
.
M
o
r
i
a
n
d
F
.
F
a
n
g
a
r
e
g
g
i
,
“
L
e
a
r
n
i
n
g
o
t
h
e
r
s
'
p
o
i
n
t
o
f
view
:
P
e
rsp
e
ctive
t
a
ki
ng
a
n
d
p
ro
s
o
ci
al
b
ehav
io
ur
in
p
res
c
ho
olers
”
,
E
a
r
l
y Ch
ild
Dev
e
l
o
p
m
ent
an
d
Care
,
vol/issue:
185(8
)
,
p
p.
1
1
9
9
-
1
2
1
5
,
2
01
5.
B
I
OGRAPHIES
O
F AUTHO
RS
Y
a
ğm
ur A
ras
, is a pres
cho
o
l teacher
i
n Ad
a
n
a, T
u
r
k
e
y
. S
h
e
recei
ve
d ba
c
h
e
l
or a
n
d
ma
s
te
r d
e
gre
e
i
n
D
epartm
en
t
of
Earl
y
C
h
i
l
d
h
ood
E
ducatio
n f
r
om
Ç
uk
urov
a Un
iv
er
si
ty,
Turkey.
Aslan,
i
s an
Ass
oc. Pro
f. Dr
.
i
n
Departm
e
nt of E
a
rly Childhood
Ed
ucati
on
in
Ç
u
k
uro
v
a
U
n
iv
ersi
ty, Ad
ana,
T
u
r
k
e
y. He recei
ved
bach
el
or, mas
ter an
d P
h
.
D
deg
r
ee
in
D
ep
art
m
ent o
f
E
a
rly
Chil
dh
oo
d
E
d
u
catio
n
from
Çuk
u
ro
va
U
niv
e
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