Int
ern
at
i
onal
Journ
al of E
valua
tio
n
an
d
Rese
arch
in
Educati
on (I
JE
RE)
Vo
l.
8
, No
.
4
,
Decem
ber
201
9
, p
p.
563
~
574
IS
S
N: 22
52
-
8822
,
DOI: 10
.11
591/
ije
re
.
v8
i
4
.
20266
563
Journ
al h
om
e
page
:
http:
//
ia
es
core
.c
om/
journa
ls
/i
ndex.
ph
p/IJE
R
E
Cyber
-
victim
izati
on and
p
erceiv
ed d
epressi
on
:
Se
rial
m
edi
ation
of
s
elf
-
esteem
and
l
earned
-
h
elples
sness
Kusus
anto Pri
ha
di,
Y
e
n Lin
g
H
ui,
Meli
ssa Ch
ua,
Ca
l
vin
K.
W
. Ch
ang
Cent
er
of
C
y
b
er
ps
y
chol
og
y
and
Gam
es,
Dept. of
Ps
y
chol
og
y
,
HE
LP
Univer
sit
y
,
Malay
s
ia
Art
ic
le
In
f
o
ABSTR
A
CT
Art
ic
le
history:
Re
cei
ved
J
ul
31
, 2
01
9
Re
vised
0ct
2
3
, 201
9
Accepte
d
Nov
2
2
, 201
9
Li
teratu
r
e
sugge
sts
tha
t
the
p
erce
pti
on
of
bei
ng
c
y
ber
-
victimize
d
is
a
stronger
pre
dictor
of
d
ep
ression
s
y
m
pto
m
s
tha
n
the
per
ce
pt
ion
of
b
ei
n
g
vic
t
imize
d
offli
ne
,
and
that
le
arn
ed
-
hel
p
le
ss
ness
ca
n
exp
lain
the
pr
edicti
on
o
f
per
c
ei
ve
d
c
y
b
er
-
vi
ct
imiz
ation
on
per
c
ei
v
ed
depr
ession.
Neve
rthele
ss
,
ot
her
studie
s
suggested
that
t
he
li
n
k
b
et
wee
n
per
ceive
d
c
yber
-
victimize
d
a
nd
le
arn
ed
-
hel
pl
essness
is
wea
kene
d
b
y
st
at
e
se
lf
-
est
ee
m
.
Thi
s
stud
y
inv
esti
gates
the
double
m
edi
a
ti
o
n
eff
e
ct
of
st
at
e
self
-
esteem
and
le
arn
ed
-
hel
p
le
ss
ness
on
the
rel
a
ti
onship
be
t
wee
n
per
c
ei
v
ed
c
y
b
er
-
vi
ct
imiz
e
d
and
per
c
ei
v
ed
depr
ession.
104
par
t
ic
ip
ant
s
bet
wee
n
18
and
30
y
ea
rs
of
age
(
63
femal
es,
41
m
al
es,
1
pr
efer
not
to
sa
y
)
h
ave
bee
n
re
cru
i
te
d
th
rough
hapha
z
ard
sam
pli
ng
m
et
hod
to
fill
i
n
the
C
y
ber
bul
l
y
i
ng
Vic
ti
m
iz
a
ti
o
n
Sca
le,
St
ate
Self
-
Esteem
Sc
al
e
,
Learned
Helpl
ess
ness
Scal
e
,
and
B
ec
k’s
Depre
ss
ion
Inve
ntor
y
.
Our
find
i
ngs
suggest
tha
t
the
doubl
e
m
edi
ation
eff
e
ct
o
cc
urs.
As
a
con
cl
usion
,
o
ur
findi
ngs
suggested
th
at
c
y
ber
bu
ll
i
ed
soc
i
al
m
edia
users
will
onl
y
fa
ll
in
to
per
ce
iv
ed
depr
ession
whe
n
the
ir
st
at
e
se
lf
-
este
em
is
al
so
nega
t
ive
l
y
aff
e
c
te
d
b
y
th
ei
r
per
ce
p
ti
on
o
f
be
i
ng
c
y
ber
bu
ll
i
ed,
up
to
the
point
where
they
learn
t
hat
they
are
hel
pl
ess.
Further
implicati
on
ar
e discuss
ed
at t
h
e end
of the
pap
er.
Ke
yw
or
d
s
:
Cy
ber
-
victim
izati
on
Learn
e
d hel
plessness
Perceive
d
de
pressi
on
So
ci
al
m
edia
Stat
e self
-
est
ee
m
Copyright
©
201
9
Instit
ut
e
o
f Ad
vanc
ed
Engi
n
ee
r
ing
and
S
cienc
e
.
Al
l
rights re
serv
ed
.
Corres
pond
in
g
Aut
h
or
:
Ku
s
us
a
nto Pri
ha
di,
Dep
a
rtm
ent o
f Psy
cho
l
ogy,
HELP U
niv
e
rs
it
y,
No.
2,
Persia
ra
n
Ca
ker
a
wala
, Sec
ti
on
U
4,
40
1050 S
ha
h Alam
, S
el
ang
or,
Ma
la
ysi
a
.
Em
a
il
:
pr
ihadi.
k@help
.edu.m
y
1.
INTROD
U
CTION
Chan
ges
c
on
st
antly
ta
ke
place
in
te
rm
s
of
the
way
a
do
le
s
cents
an
d
yo
ung
a
dult
s
com
m
un
ic
at
e
[1]
because
s
ocial
m
edia
ena
bles
ever
y
on
e
to
ha
ve
easy
acce
ss
t
o
sta
y
c
onnecte
d
with
one
a
no
t
her
[
2]
.
S
ocial
m
edia
is
cu
rr
e
ntly
a
m
ajo
r
m
edium
of
c
omm
un
ic
ation
an
d
in
form
at
ion
[
3]
,
a
nd
it
ha
s
s
om
e
dis
ti
nct
featu
res
t
ha
t
co
ul
d
no
t
be
f
ound
i
n
face
-
to
-
face
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
,
su
c
h
a
s
it
s
ever
la
sti
ng
acc
essibil
it
y,
wh
e
re
us
ers
ca
n
e
xp
ect
at
te
ntion
a
nd
posit
ive
c
omm
e
nts
or
“l
ikes”
a
nytim
e
fr
om
pract
ic
al
ly
anybo
dy
in
t
he
w
orl
d
[4]
;
in
t
urn,
rec
ei
ving
su
c
h
fee
dback
m
igh
t im
pr
ove
one’s i
nter
nal
con
t
ro
l a
nd sel
f
-
est
eem
[5]
.
Inv
olv
em
ent
in
s
ocial
m
edia
act
ivit
ie
s
al
so
ha
s
it
s
c
onseq
ue
nc
es,
s
uc
h
as
ne
gative
ju
dg
m
ent
[6]
,
w
hic
h
can
le
a
d
to
ve
rb
al
a
ggressi
on
or
al
so
known
as
cy
berbul
ly
ing
[
7]
.
Whi
le
ever
y
s
ocia
l
m
edia
us
e
r
m
igh
t
be
vu
l
ner
a
ble
to
s
uch
ag
gressi
on
,
not
e
ver
y
on
e
will
ex
per
ie
nc
e
it
,
beca
us
e
not
al
l
of
t
hem
are
“c
hosen”
by
th
e
offende
rs
[
8]
.
The
per
s
pecti
ve
of
tra
diti
onal
victim
olo
gy
pe
rsp
ect
ive
s
ca
n
ex
plain
how
relat
ion
s
hip
be
tween
victim
s,
offe
nders
,
a
nd
the
env
i
ronm
ent
it
sel
f
m
igh
t
in
duce
cy
berb
ully
ing
[
9,
10
]
th
e
tra
diti
on
al
r
ou
ti
ne
act
ivit
ie
s
m
odel
sta
te
s
that
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
m
igh
t
ta
ke
place
w
he
n
a
ta
r
get
ed
victi
m
and
a
m
otivate
d
offende
r
conve
rg
e
i
n
a
place
with
out
m
eaningfu
l
su
r
veill
ance
or
ca
pab
le
guar
dian
s
[9]
.
I
n
the
c
onte
xt
of
cy
be
r
sp
ace
,
so
ci
al
m
edia facil
it
at
es the co
nv
e
r
gen
ce
of s
uitable
v
ic
ti
m
s
and m
otivate
d o
ff
e
nd
e
rs.
On
e
of
the
in
di
cat
or
s
of
the
ab
sence
of
guar
di
ans
hip
is
how
f
ree
t
he
y
ou
t
h
a
nd
a
do
le
sce
nce
be
ha
ve
on
so
ci
al
m
edia;
f
or
i
ns
ta
nce
,
20%
of
te
e
na
ger
s
adm
itted
hav
i
ng
sh
a
red
or
poste
d
nude
or
sem
inu
de
phot
os
of
the
m
sel
ves
[1
0]
,
wh
il
e
40%
of
te
ens
an
d
yo
un
g
ad
ults
re
porte
d
that
they
ha
ve
been
sho
wn
a
sexual
ly
su
gge
sti
ve
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
2019
:
563
-
574
564
m
essage
or
i
gina
ll
y
m
eant
for
so
m
eon
e
el
se
[
11
]
.
T
his
proa
ct
ive
discl
os
ur
e
cultu
re
ena
bl
es
a
ny
s
ocial
m
edia
us
er
t
o
ide
ntify
su
it
able
victi
m
s
by
obta
ini
ng
t
he
pe
rs
onal
inf
or
m
at
ion
that
would
sel
dom
be
release
d
on
consent
in
a
n
offli
ne
c
on
te
xt
[8]
.
Mo
reover
,
us
e
rs
c
an
c
hoose
t
o
be
an
onym
ou
s
and
get
a
way
with
t
heir
a
gg
r
essive
on
li
ne
be
ha
vi
or
[
12,
1]
w
he
n
the
re
is
a
l
ack
of
ade
qua
te
m
echan
ism
s
pro
vid
e
d
by
ei
ther
la
wm
a
ker
s
or
te
chnolo
gy
pr
ovide
rs
f
or
ide
nt
ify
ing
,
a
rr
est
i
ng,
or
prosec
ut
ing
cy
berb
ulli
es
[
13
]
,
a
nd
m
os
t
of
the
ti
m
e,
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
c
ases are
un
derr
eported
[
14
]
.
Ap
a
rt
from
t
hat,
s
ocial
m
edia
c
omm
un
i
cat
ion
al
s
o
i
nt
e
ns
ifie
s
the
neg
at
ive
im
pacts
of
cy
be
r
victim
iz
ation
[
13
]
.
F
irst,
beca
us
e
us
ers
do
not
sta
rt
us
i
ng
s
ocial
m
edia
wi
th
an
inte
ntio
n
to
m
ake
new
f
r
ie
nd
s
,
they
m
erel
y
rep
li
cat
e
their
off
li
ne
so
ci
al
en
vi
ronm
ent
in
the
on
li
ne
realm
[1
5,
16
]
wh
ic
h
m
eans
that
t
heir
gro
up
dynam
ic
re
m
a
i
ns
the
sam
e;
the
victim
s
and
the
bull
ie
s
retai
n
t
heir
so
ci
al
r
oles
on
li
ne
,
a
nd
due
t
o
the
24/7
acce
ss
ibil
it
y,
so
ci
al
m
edia
a
m
plifie
s
the
ne
gative
s
ocial
capit
al
that m
igh
t
hav
e
a
lready
ta
ke
n
place
in
their
offli
ne
s
ocial
e
nv
ir
on
m
ent.
F
or
i
ns
ta
nce,
w
he
n
c
yber
-
victi
m
iz
ation
at
te
m
pt
was
directed
to
ward
s
ind
ivi
du
al
s
who
a
re
not
us
e
d
to
be
victim
i
zed
offli
ne,
re
ci
procal
on
li
ne
ag
gressi
on
is
m
or
e
li
kely
to
ta
ke
place
rather
th
an
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
,
w
hic
h
is
cha
racteri
zed
by
a
powe
r
differe
ntial
b
et
ween
the
bul
ly
and
victim
[17]
.
Seco
nd,
wh
e
n
cy
berbu
ll
yi
ng
happe
ns
a
nony
m
ou
sly
,
there
i
s
a
hi
gh
e
r
li
kelihoo
d
f
or
ot
her
so
ci
al
m
edia
us
ers
t
o
res
po
nd
m
or
e
ag
gr
essivel
y
tow
a
r
ds
the
victim
i
zed
in
div
id
ual
s
[18]
.
I
n
tu
r
n,
victim
s
of
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
,
who
us
e
d
t
o
be
victi
m
iz
ed
off
li
ne,
will
e
ven
t
ually
‘lear
n’
from
their
past
e
xp
e
riences
that
they
are
helpless,
an
d
i
ncap
a
ble
of
ef
fec
ti
vely
def
e
nding
t
hem
sel
ves,
because
fig
hting
bac
k
will
on
ly
am
plify
the
inte
ns
it
y
of
the
ab
us
e
[19]
.
In
ot
her
w
ord
s,
the
re
is
a
hig
h
possi
bili
ty
fo
r
e
ve
ry
so
ci
al
m
edia
us
er
to
be
a
vi
ct
i
m
of
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
,
and
once
t
hey
per
cei
ve
them
sel
ves
to
be
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
ed,
they
m
igh
t n
ot be a
ble
to
get
out f
ro
m
the situati
on, becau
se the
y event
ually
learne
d
t
hat they
are helple
ss
.
Fu
rt
her
m
or
e,
le
arn
e
d
-
helples
sn
ess
(L
H)
ha
ve
bee
n
re
port
ed
to
pr
e
dict
s
ever
al
ne
gative
trai
ts
am
on
g
youths,
rangin
g
f
ro
m
academ
ic
procr
ast
in
at
ion
[
20
]
to
the
de
velo
pm
ent
of
depressi
ve
m
oo
d
[
21
]
a
nd
de
pr
essi
ve
sy
m
pto
m
s
[2
2]
fu
rt
her
m
or
e,
delay
ed
or
i
m
m
ediat
e
depressive
sym
pt
om
s
m
igh
t
le
ad
to
su
ic
i
de
i
deati
on
[23,
24]
.
Acc
ordin
gly,
wh
il
e
so
m
e
of
the
de
pr
e
ssio
n
a
nd
s
uicidal
it
y
wer
e
re
porte
d
as
t
he
im
pact
of
t
he
com
bin
at
ion
of
cy
be
r
-
victim
izati
on
a
nd
offli
ne
victi
m
iz
a
ti
on
[25]
,
but
m
any
of
them
we
re
al
so
cause
d
by
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
a
lon
e
[
26]
.
Hence
,
it
ca
n
be
a
ssu
m
ed
that
t
he
ass
ociat
ion
a
m
on
g
bein
g
cy
berb
ulli
ed,
le
a
rn
e
d
-
helpless
ness,
a
nd
pe
rceive
d
depressi
on
is
pr
e
valent.
M
oreov
e
r,
t
he
inc
r
ease
in
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
r
el
at
ed
depressi
on
am
ong
y
ou
t
h
si
nc
e
ye
ar
2006
[27,
28]
in
dicat
es
that
t
her
e
is
a
nee
d
t
o
unde
r
sta
nd
the
co
ntr
ibu
ti
ng
factors
o
f p
reval
ent cyber
-
victim
iz
at
ion
phe
no
m
enon
in
cr
eat
ing
new an
d m
or
e seve
re
victim
s
[
29]
.
This
cu
rr
e
nt
stud
y
was
init
ia
te
d
to
in
vestig
at
e
wh
et
he
r
pe
rceive
d
cy
berv
ic
tim
iz
at
ion
w
il
l
dev
el
op
per
cei
ved
de
pr
ession
th
rou
gh
le
arn
e
d
-
hel
plessness
.
Howe
ve
r,
furthe
r
re
view
of
the
li
te
ratur
e
sug
gested
tha
t
sel
f
-
est
eem
play
s
i
m
po
rtant
r
ole
in
the
st
ud
i
es
ph
e
nom
enon,
f
or
instan
ce,
on
ly
in
div
id
ua
ls
with
low
sc
or
e
of
sel
f
-
est
eem
te
nd
to
e
xperie
nc
e
bein
g
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ed
[30
]
,
and
t
hat
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
c
on
tri
bu
te
s
t
o
lo
wer
sel
f
-
est
eem
[3
1
-
3
3
]
.
I
n
or
de
r
to
unde
rstan
d
t
he
var
i
ous
dir
ect
ion
s
of
fin
di
ng
s
,
it
i
s
im
per
at
ive
to
l
ook
at
sel
f
-
est
eem
f
ro
m
the
per
s
pe
ct
ive
that
it
has
been
s
how
n
to
hav
e
trai
t
com
pone
nts
as
well
as
sta
te
com
po
nen
ts
[3
4
-
3
6
]
.
These
find
i
ngs
sup
porte
d
the
hy
pothesis
that
ha
vi
ng
a
per
ce
ption
of
bein
g
c
yber
-
victi
m
iz
e
d
will
pr
e
dict
one
’s st
at
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
, w
hile
stu
dies
so
m
e
oth
ers
in
dicat
ed t
hat
cer
ta
in
le
vel
of
tra
it
sel
f
-
est
eem
m
ight
determ
ine w
he
ther o
ne percei
ve
that t
hey are
b
ei
ng cy
ber
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
ed.
In
t
he
co
ntext
of
t
his
stu
dy,
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
i
s
con
side
red
m
or
e
im
per
at
ive
to
st
udy
than
trai
t
sel
f
-
est
eem
,
wh
ic
h
ref
e
rs
t
o
an
in
div
i
dua
l’s
accum
ulate
d
li
felo
ng
pe
rcep
ti
on
of
so
ci
al
inclusi
on
a
nd
exclusi
on
[37]
,
be
cause
it
is
s
om
eho
w
m
or
e
diff
ic
ult
to
al
te
r,
w
hile
sta
te
s
el
f
-
est
eem
is
a
per
ce
ptio
n
o
f
c
hanges
in one
’s
le
vel
of s
ocial
inclusi
on, give
n
a
part
ic
ular
set
ti
ng
[
38
]
. He
nce,
t
hi
s stu
dy
ai
m
s to
inv
est
i
gate w
he
ther
le
arn
e
d
-
helples
sn
ess
a
nd
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
c
an
ex
plain
the
con
tri
bu
ti
on
of
pe
rceive
d
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
a
tio
n
on
per
cei
ved d
e
pr
ession.
2.
REVIEW
S O
F LIT
ERAT
U
RE
The
f
ollo
wing
su
bse
ct
ions
dis
cuss
the
pr
e
vious
stu
dies
relat
ed
t
o
the
va
riab
le
s
an
d
the
inte
racti
on
s
am
on
g
them
.
Re
views
of
t
he
f
ollo
wing
li
te
ratu
res
wer
e
util
iz
ed
to
de
vel
op
t
he
hypotheti
cal
m
od
el
t
o
be
te
ste
d
in
t
his
current
stu
dy.
2.1.
Perce
ived c
yber
-
vict
im
iz
at
i
on
and percei
ved depressi
on
Cy
ber
bull
yi
ng
or
Cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
ref
e
r
s
to
a
n
intenti
on
al
,
a
ggressi
ve
an
d
re
petit
ive
be
ha
vio
r
perpetrat
e
d
by
a
m
or
e
powe
rful
ind
i
vidual
against
s
om
eon
e
m
or
e
vulne
ra
ble
us
in
g
te
ch
nolo
gy
su
c
h
as
inter
net,
so
ci
al
m
edia
and
cel
lular
phones
[31
]
,
and
so
m
e
stud
ie
s
ha
ve
repor
te
d
it
s
direct
ass
oc
ia
ti
on
with
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
in
va
rio
us
di
recti
on
s.
Stu
di
es
on
ef
fects
of
cy
berb
ully
i
ng
re
ported
str
onge
r
li
nks
be
tween
bein
g
victi
m
s
of
cy
be
r
bu
ll
yi
ng
a
nd
pe
rcei
ved
(self
-
re
por
te
d)
depres
sio
n
[
32,
33]
co
m
par
ed
to
tra
diti
on
al
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Dou
ble m
e
dia
t
ion
ro
le
of self
-
est
eem
and
le
arne
d
-
helpless
ne
ss
…
(
Kus
us
anto
Prih
ad
i
)
565
bu
ll
yi
ng
[
34]
a
nd
that
t
his
rela
ti
on
s
hip
is
stronge
r
am
ong
gir
ls
[35,
36]
,
al
th
ough
the
ge
nde
r
diff
e
ren
c
es
a
r
e
not
sign
ific
a
nt
at
colle
ge
le
vel
[
33]
.
H
ow
e
ve
r,
a
stud
y
co
nduc
te
d
in
f
our
unive
rsiti
es
in
the
U
SA
rev
eal
ed
that
colle
ge
stu
de
nt
s
who
had
be
en
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ed
are
thr
ee
tim
es
m
or
e
li
kely
than
t
ho
s
e
w
ho
ha
d
never
exp
e
rience
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
a
tio
n
to
disp
la
y
sym
pto
m
s
of
de
pr
essi
on
as
delineat
ed
by
D
SM
-
IV
[
39]
.
The
i
ntr
us
ive
na
ture
of
c
ybe
r
bull
yi
ng
,
unli
ke
tradit
ion
al
bull
yi
ng
t
hat
te
nds
to
e
nd
w
he
n
t
he
bull
y
is
not
w
it
hin
the
vicinit
y
[40]
seem
ing
ly
pr
e
dicts
the
es
cal
at
ing
sym
pt
om
s
of
depres
sion
ov
e
r
ti
m
e
[41]
wh
ic
h
c
ou
l
d
po
te
n
ti
al
ly
lea
d
to
s
uicide ide
at
ion
[26]
.
Ther
e
seem
s
to
be
no
ge
nder
diff
e
re
nces
f
ound
at
c
ol
le
ge
le
vel
f
or
the
li
nk
bet
ween
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
a
nd
(
per
cei
ved)
depressi
on
[
33]
, su
gg
est
in
g t
ha
t
bo
t
h m
al
e
and
fem
al
e
are
eq
ually
s
us
ce
ptib
le
to
depressi
on
f
ollow
in
g
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
.
Cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
am
on
g
colle
ge
st
ud
ents
wa
s
a
uniq
ue
sign
ific
a
nt
pre
dictor
of
de
pressi
on
a
bove
a
nd
beyo
nd
tra
diti
on
al
victim
iz
at
ion
.
S
pecif
ic
al
ly
,
add
in
g
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
to
a
m
od
el
that
al
read
y
co
ntained
tra
diti
onal
victim
iz
ation
a
ccounted f
or
a g
reater p
er
cent
age
of
the
var
ia
nce
in
de
pressi
on,
e
ven
wh
e
n
ta
ki
ng
tra
diti
on
al
victim
iz
ation
e
xp
e
riences
i
nto
ac
co
unt,
t
hose
w
ho
exp
e
rience
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
a
tio
n
a
re
at
e
ve
n
great
er
ris
k
f
or
de
velo
pin
g
sym
pto
m
s
of
de
pressi
on
[
33
]
.
Fu
rt
her
m
or
e,
it
wo
ul
d
be
m
or
e
detrim
e
ntal
to
stu
de
nts’
s
ocial
-
em
otion
al
well
-
be
ing
t
han
t
ra
diti
on
al
victim
iz
ation
because
it
is
a
m
or
e
pe
rsiste
nt
an
d
pe
r
va
sive
f
or
m
of
aggressi
on.
Th
is
is
becau
se
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
can
occur
fr
e
qu
e
ntly
an
d
is
dif
ficult
to
a
vo
i
d,
a
nd
th
e
ne
gative
m
essages
i
nh
e
re
nt
in
the
victim
iz
ation
m
ay
b
e
highly
sal
ie
nt to
t
he vi
ct
i
m
an
d dif
ficult
to
cou
ntera
ct
w
it
h p
os
it
iv
e m
essages,
le
a
ding t
o
reduce
d
sel
f
-
co
ncep
t a
nd s
ubs
equ
e
ntly
hi
gh
e
r
le
vels
of
depr
ession
[
42]
.
2.2
.
St
ate s
el
f
-
es
te
em as a
medi
ator
Be
fore
the
tim
e
of
s
ocial
m
edia,
at
the
end
of
the
20
th
ce
ntur
y,
internet
wa
s
consi
der
e
d
as
a
con
tri
bu
t
or
to
de
pr
essi
on
and
l
ow
e
r
sel
f
-
est
eem
[43]
a
nd
a
fe
w
ye
ar
s
la
te
r
it
wa
s
sta
te
d
that
inte
rn
et
com
m
un
ic
at
ion
pro
vid
es
per
cei
ved
s
ocial
s
upport
that
sig
nific
antly
re
du
c
e
de
pr
essi
on
a
nd
im
pr
ov
e
sel
f
-
es
te
e
m
[44]
.
H
oweve
r,
the
co
rr
el
at
io
n
betwee
n
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
and
pe
rceive
d
depres
sion
has
bee
n
est
abl
ished
be
f
or
e
t
he
ti
m
e
of
so
ci
al
m
edia.
For
ex
a
m
ple,
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
pr
im
arily
buff
e
rs
the
im
pact
of
de
pres
sion
t
hat
is
cause
d
by
inte
rpersonal
relat
ion
s
hip
[
45]
.
Mo
re
rece
nt
stu
dies
re
po
rted
cl
eare
r
as
so
ci
at
ion
bet
w
een
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
and
de
pr
ess
ion
;
f
or
instance,
a
stu
dy
am
on
g
594
ad
olescents
r
eported
t
hat
s
el
f
-
est
eem
was
the
m
os
t
signi
ficant
predict
or
for
depressi
ve
sym
pto
m
s
[46]
.
I
n
li
ne
with
t
ha
t,
ano
t
her
st
udy
a
m
on
g
674
Me
xican
-
Am
erican
stu
den
ts
r
eported
that
low
sel
f
-
e
ste
e
m
is
the
so
urce
of
per
c
e
ived
de
pr
essi
on
[
47]
.
I
n
ot
he
r
w
ords
,
their
stud
y
in
dicat
ed
that
ind
ivi
du
al
s
w
it
h
lo
w
s
el
f
-
est
e
e
m
are
m
or
e susce
p
ti
ble to
p
e
r
cei
ved
de
pr
es
sion.
In
the
c
on
te
xt
of
cy
be
r
-
victi
m
i
zat
ion
,
Ol
weus
[
37
]
insist
ed
th
at
the
te
rm
‘cyber
’
i
n
cy
ber
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
is
ov
e
rr
at
e
d
a
nd
is
a
lo
w
pr
e
va
le
nce
phe
no
m
enon,
beca
us
e
the
victi
m
s
hav
e
bee
n
victi
m
ized
e
ven
be
fore
they
wer
e
cy
be
rbulli
ed.
He s
ugge
ste
d t
ha
t
the
i
nte
rn
et
w
ou
l
d
neither
create
ne
w
victim
s
nor
ne
w
offende
rs
be
cause
the
so
ci
al
str
uc
ture
betwee
n
the
tw
o
ha
s
be
en
est
ablis
hed
offli
ne,
a
nd
th
at
so
ci
al
m
edi
a
is
just
a
m
edium
to
con
ti
nue
their
bu
ll
yi
ng
beh
a
vi
our.
I
n
li
ne
w
i
th
that,
a
stu
dy
a
m
on
g
90 Brit
ish a
dole
scents
(16
-
19 yea
r
s
of age
)
su
ggest
e
d
that
sel
f
-
est
eem
si
gn
i
ficantl
y
pre
dicte
d
cy
ber
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
,
s
uc
h
that
th
os
e
with
lo
w
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
wer
e
m
os
t l
ikely
to
re
port e
xperience
of cy
be
rv
ic
ti
m
iz
at
ion
[30]
.
The
c
la
im
s
of
Brewe
r
a
nd
K
erslake
[
38
]
a
nd
Olwe
us
[
3
7
]
wer
e
de
nied
by
a
la
r
ger
s
c
al
e
stu
dy
i
n
Qu
e
bec
(N
=
65
40),
w
hich
c
on
firm
ed
that
yo
uth
s
bull
ie
d
vi
a
the
inter
net
presente
d
a
sli
ghtl
y
higher
i
ntensity
of
ps
yc
holo
gical
distress
a
nd
lo
wer
s
el
f
-
est
ee
m
as
co
m
par
ed
to
victi
m
s
of
oth
e
r
f
or
m
s
of
bu
ll
yi
ng
[
48
]
43
T
heir
furthe
r
fi
nd
i
ngs
of
the
l
og
ist
i
c
regressi
on
sugg
e
ste
d
that
t
he
us
e
of
the
Int
ern
et
as
a
platfo
rm
fo
r
har
as
sm
ent
and
m
ock
ing
cou
l
d
le
ad
to
a
great
er
fee
li
ng
of
overe
xposure
tha
n
oth
e
r
f
orm
s
of
bull
yi
ng
;
for
tha
t
reason,
in
div
i
dual
s
who
we
re
cy
ber
-
victim
i
zed
m
ay
be
m
or
e
li
kely
to
de
velo
p
ps
yc
holog
ic
al
distress
an
d
low
s
el
f
-
est
ee
m
.
Ap
a
rt
from
tha
t,
sel
f
-
est
eem
con
sist
s
of
trai
t
and
sta
te
com
po
ne
nts
[36
-
38]
w
he
reb
y
trai
t
com
po
ne
nt
is
m
or
e
in
nate
and
sta
ble,
w
he
reas
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
fluctuates
fo
ll
owin
g
the
soc
ia
l
en
vironm
ent
feedb
ack
of
sel
f
-
e
valuati
on
[
48
]
.
Wh
il
e
se
lf
-
est
eem
is
how
in
div
i
dual
s
f
eel
ab
ou
t
or
e
va
luate
them
selv
es
at
a
giv
e
n
po
i
nt
in
tim
e,
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
ref
ers
to
the
te
m
po
ra
ry
fluct
uations
in
sel
f
-
est
eem
[49]
.
A
stu
dy
am
on
g
19
63
early
te
enag
e
rs
in
th
e
Un
it
ed
Stat
es
ind
ic
at
ed
that
l
ess
ade
qu
at
e
se
lf
-
est
eem
le
vel
s
wer
e
fou
nd
a
m
on
g
the
pa
rtic
ipant
s
who
wer
e
in
vo
lved
in
cy
ber
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
,
both
as
offe
nd
e
r
s
and
a
s
victi
m
s
[50]
.
By
pin
-
po
i
nting
i
nad
e
qu
at
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
as
the
outc
om
e,
their
stu
dy
s
upplem
ented
their
previ
ous
on
e
,
w
hich
re
ported
that
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
c
on
t
rib
utes to n
egati
ve
em
otion
al
and
ps
yc
holog
ic
al
in
g
e
ne
ral
[
22
]
.
Fu
rt
her
m
or
e,
s
el
f
-
est
eem
as
a
m
ediat
or
va
riable
of
de
pr
es
sion
has
been
re
ported
as
well
;
sel
f
-
est
eem
m
ediat
ed
the
c
on
t
rib
ution
of
body
dissati
sfa
ct
ion
on
de
pres
sed
m
ood
am
on
g
49
95
ad
oles
cents
(
1002
A
m
erican
and
3993
Kore
ans),
ade
quat
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
le
vel
protect
ed
th
e
m
f
ro
m
hav
in
g
de
pressed
m
ood
ca
us
e
d
by
body
dissati
sfacti
on
[51]
.
O
n
the
oth
er
hand,
a
l
ongitud
i
nal
stu
dy
on
12,68
6
in
di
vid
uals
i
n
U
nited
Stat
es
ind
i
cat
e
d
that
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
did
not
pla
y
ro
le
in
m
ediat
ing
the
e
ff
ec
t
of
par
e
ntal
s
ocio
-
eco
nom
ic
sta
tus
on
depressio
n
sy
m
pto
m
s
;
instea
d,
it
was
m
ediat
ed
by
the
prol
onge
d
str
ess
due
to
po
ver
ty
[
52]
H
oweve
r,
the
fin
ding
of
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
2019
:
563
-
574
566
Mossak
ows
ki
can
be
co
ns
ide
red
ar
guable
be
cause
he
anal
yz
ed
the
m
ediat
ion
e
ff
ect
sep
arate
ly
for
his
double
m
ediat
ion
stu
dy
(m
1
was
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
,
and
m
2
wa
s
the
le
ng
t
h
of
pove
rty
);
because
the
i
nteracti
on
bet
we
en
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
and
le
ngth
of
pover
ty
wer
e
not
ta
ke
n i
nto
c
onsider
at
ion
[
53
]
.
Re
la
te
d
to
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
, s
tu
dies o
f
Hi
nduja
a
nd
Patc
hin
a
re
m
ai
nly
su
pp
or
te
d
by
t
he
sym
bo
li
c
interact
ion
the
or
y
[54,
55]
wh
ic
h
e
xp
la
in
s
that
in
div
id
ua
ls
evaluate
th
e
m
sel
ves
base
d
on
t
heir
perce
pti
on
of
a
nother
in
div
id
uals’
e
xpect
at
ion
on
t
hem
.
For
instanc
e,
stud
ie
s
in
sch
ool
set
ti
ng
s
s
ug
gested
t
hat
stu
den
ts
’
sel
f
-
est
eem
is
con
ti
nge
nt
on
t
heir
own
per
ce
ption
of
te
ache
rs’
e
xpect
ancy
towa
rd
s
t
hem
[56
-
58
]
,
a
nd
it
m
igh
t
be
m
ediat
ed
by
oth
er
va
riabl
es,
s
uch
as
loc
us
of
c
ontr
ol
[
47
]
or
so
ci
al
m
edia
usa
ge
[
5]
.
In
the
c
onte
xt
of
thi
s
cu
r
ren
t
stu
dy,
s
ocial
m
edia
use
rs
m
igh
t
ha
ve
us
e
d
t
he
c
omm
ents
or
oth
e
r
soc
ia
l
feedbac
k
poste
d
by
thei
r
onli
ne
peer
s
to
eval
ua
te
them
sel
ves;
wh
e
n t
hey
rec
e
ive
ve
r
bal
a
ggr
ession
an
d
ot
he
r t
ypes
of
ne
ga
ti
ve fee
db
ac
ks,
they
will
per
cei
ve
t
hat
they
a
re
be
ing
cy
b
er
-
victi
m
iz
ed
and
in
t
urn,
t
his
per
ce
ption
will
af
fe
ct
their
sel
f
-
ev
al
uatio
n
at
the m
o
m
ent, and
it
pre
dicts l
ow
e
r
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
.
The
a
forem
entio
ne
d
st
ud
ie
s
sugg
e
st
that
pe
rc
ei
ved
cy
ber
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
pre
dicts
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
,
and
that
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
e
e
m
pr
e
dicts
pe
rceive
d
de
pr
essi
on,
w
hic
h
le
a
d
t
o
t
he
hy
po
the
sis
that
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
will
play
a
m
ediat
ing
r
ole
on
t
he
relat
ion
s
hip
be
tween
pe
rceive
d
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
a
nd
perce
ived
de
press
ion
.
I
n
oth
e
r
w
ords
,
th
e
highe
r
the stat
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
l
evel,
the
le
ss
li
kely
the p
ercei
ved
cy
be
r
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
will
aff
ec
t
per
cei
ved d
e
pr
ession am
on
g y
oung adult
s.
Self
-
est
eem
as
a
m
ediat
or
var
i
able
of
depress
ion
ha
s
bee
n
re
ported
in
oth
er
stud
ie
s
as
well
;
sel
f
-
est
eem
m
ediat
ed
the
c
on
t
rib
ution
of
body
dissati
sfa
ct
ion
on
de
pres
sed
m
ood
am
on
g
49
95
ad
oles
cents
(
1002
A
m
erican
and
3993
Kore
ans),
ade
quat
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
le
vel
protect
ed
th
e
m
fr
om
hav
in
g
de
pressed
m
ood
ca
us
e
d
by
body
dissati
sfacti
on
[59]
.
O
n
t
he
ot
her
hand,
a
lo
ngit
ud
i
nal
st
ud
y
on
12,68
6
i
nd
i
viduals
i
n
t
he
Un
it
ed
Stat
es
ind
ic
at
e
d
that
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
did
no
t
m
ediat
e
the
ef
fect
of
pa
re
ntal
so
ci
o
-
eco
nom
ic
stat
us
on
de
pr
e
ssio
n
sym
pto
m
s;
instea
d,
it
was
m
ediat
e
d
by
t
he
prol
onge
d
stress
due
to
pover
ty
[
53
]
.
Howe
ver
,
Moss
ak
owski
’s
did
no
t
re
port
th
e
interact
ion
bet
ween
his
tw
o
va
riables
(S
el
f
-
e
te
e
m
and
prolo
ng
e
d
stres
s
due
to
pove
rty
);
th
e
interact
i
on
be
tween
the tw
o
m
igh
t
exp
la
in
the
actual
role
of
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
in
m
edi
at
ing
the
li
nk.
2.
3.
Le
arned
-
helpl
essness
as
a m
ediat
or
The
pe
rceive
d
-
ho
pelessnes
s
of
the
victi
m
is
the
m
os
t
prevale
nt
ob
j
ec
ti
ve
of
t
he
a
ggress
ors
i
n
the
case
of
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
,
beca
us
e
pri
or
to
com
m
itti
ng
thei
r
a
ggressi
on,
the
a
ggress
or
s
pe
rceive
d
powe
r
i
m
balance
between
a
ggress
ors
a
nd
victim
s
[60]
.
Alth
ough
m
ajo
rity
of
t
he
se
victim
s
perce
ive
th
at
they
ha
ve
m
or
e
auto
nom
y
in
res
pondin
g
t
o
t
he
a
ggre
ssion
s
uch
as
ignori
ng
or
de
le
ti
ng
the
m
essages,
or
bl
oc
king
the
se
nder
[
61]
,
a
do
le
sce
nt
use
rs
of
s
ocial
m
edia
te
nd
to
ha
ve
t
he
fea
r
of
m
issi
ng
ou
t
(
F
OMO
),
the
de
s
ire
to
sta
y
con
ti
nual
ly
connecte
d
with
oth
e
rs
[62]
,
wh
ic
h
kee
ps
t
hem
ho
oke
d
ont
o
so
ci
al
m
edia
and
be
e
xpos
e
d
to
al
l
the
ne
gative
fe
edb
ac
ks
as
well
as
ver
bal
a
ggr
ession
t
ow
a
rds
them
.
Moreo
ve
r,
w
hile
the
ha
r
assm
ent
initiated
by
the
a
ggress
or
of
cy
be
r
-
vict
im
iz
at
ion
m
ay
ha
ve
only
be
en
c
omm
it
ted
once,
due
to
t
he
per
m
anen
ce
of
acce
ssibil
it
y,
i
t
can
res
ult
in
long
te
rm
i
m
pacts
of
bein
g
cy
ber
-
victi
m
i
zed
[
26]
,
an
d
there
by
intensi
fyi
ng
the p
e
rce
ption
of b
ei
ng cyber
-
victim
iz
ed.
Fu
rt
he
rm
or
e,
a
longit
ud
i
nal
st
ud
y
am
on
g
14
6
pa
rtic
ipants
in
dicat
ed
t
hat
perce
ived
cy
be
r
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
is
al
so
intensifi
ed
by
the p
e
rce
ived
-
an
onym
ity
of
the o
f
fe
nders
[
7]
.
A
nothe
r
stu
dy
by
Zim
m
er
m
an
and
Ybar
ra
[20]
am
on
g
126
un
derg
radu
at
e
ps
yc
holo
gy
stud
e
nts
at
te
nd
ing
t
he
U
niv
e
r
sit
y
of
N
or
t
h
Flor
i
da
s
howe
d
that
per
cei
ved
a
nonym
it
y
increas
ed
t
he
li
keli
hood
that
in
div
i
dual
s
will
ag
gr
e
ss,
a
nd
a
ggres
sive
s
ocial
m
od
el
in
g
exacer
bates
thi
s
outc
om
e
in
anonym
ou
s
in
div
id
uals.
I
n
ot
her
words,
pe
rc
ei
ve
d
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
a
m
on
g
victim
s
is
no
t
on
ly
per
cei
ved
to
be
i
ntensi
fied
by
the
acce
s
sibil
it
y
of
s
oci
al
m
edia,
it
is
act
ually
intensi
fied
by
the
oth
e
r
an
on
ym
ou
s
a
ggress
or
s
who
m
igh
t
joi
n
t
he
act
io
n
victi
m
iz
ing
t
hem
further.
T
he
de
velo
pm
e
nt
of
intens
it
y
is
al
s
o
cause
d
by
th
e
low
te
nde
nc
y
of
the
victi
m
s
to
repo
rt
the
aggressi
on
du
e
to
the
fear
of
gr
eat
e
r
conseq
ue
nces should
the a
ggr
essors
ho
l
d gru
dg
e
s
or
ta
ke re
venge
f
or
re
porting t
hem
[63]
.
The
esc
al
at
ion
of
the
i
ntensity
of
per
cei
ved
c
yber
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
dri
ves
the
vi
ct
i
m
s
to
belie
ve
that
they
are
hel
pless
a
nd
hopeless.
Th
is
ph
e
nom
eno
n
can
be
e
xp
la
in
ed
by
the
the
or
y
of
hopeless
ne
ss;
buil
ding
on
the
refor
m
ulate
d
helpless
ness
t
heory
[
64]
,
th
e
hopeless
ness
theo
ry
[
56]
r
edu
ce
d
t
he
prom
inence
of
causal
at
tr
ibu
ti
ons
(
I
a
m
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
ed)
,
but
in
ste
ad
c
harac
te
r
iz
e
ne
gative
infe
ren
ti
al
sty
le
s
in
th
ree
f
orm
s
of
infer
e
ntial
te
ndencies
in
res
pons
e
to
a
ne
gativ
e
eve
nt:
(a)
i
nferr
in
g
sta
ble
an
d
global
causes
,
rathe
r
tha
n
un
sta
bl
e
and
s
pecific
ca
us
es
f
or
the
eve
nt
(“
I
am
al
ways
w
orse
th
an
an
yone
el
se”,
i
ns
te
ad
of
“T
her
e
a
re
thi
ngs
that
ot
he
r
s
are
bette
r
t
ha
n
m
e
at
.”),
(
b)
in
ferrin
g
ne
gativ
e
co
ns
e
quence
s
of
the
eve
nt
(
D
at
ta
ck
s
m
e
be
cause
A
,
B,
a
nd
C
at
ta
cked
m
e)
,
and
(c
)
in
ferri
ng
ne
gative
sel
f
-
c
har
act
e
risti
cs
(I
d
e
ser
ve
t
o
be
victim
iz
ed,
that
is
w
hy
thi
s
will
nev
e
r st
op
).
As
exp
la
ine
d,
t
he
con
ti
nu
ous
esc
al
at
ion
of
the
pe
rceive
d cy
be
r
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
intensit
y
co
ntri
bu
tes
to one
’s
le
ar
ne
d
helpless
ness, w
hich
e
ve
ntu
a
ll
y l
eads one
to
hop
el
ess
ness
.
Re
la
te
d
to
the
per
cei
ved
depr
ession,
Nasci
m
ento,
W
al
s
h
-
Mon
te
ir
o,
a
nd
Gou
veia
[65]
re
-
ex
plaine
d
Seli
gm
an’
s
th
e
or
y
of
le
a
rn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
[66
]
by
sta
ti
ng
th
at
depressio
n
r
esults
f
ro
m
the
idea
that
a
n
ac
ti
on
is
us
el
ess,
an
id
ea
that
is
ge
ner
at
e
d
du
e
t
o
th
e
e
xisten
ce
of
unco
ntr
ol
la
ble
sit
uati
on
s
,
s
uc
h
as
healt
h
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Dou
ble m
e
dia
t
ion
ro
le
of self
-
est
eem
and
le
arne
d
-
helpless
ne
ss
…
(
Kus
us
anto
Prih
ad
i
)
567
issues,
relat
io
nship
issues
,
de
at
h
a
nd
so
f
or
t
h.
A
no
t
her
stu
dy
by
Mi
ll
s,
A
zi
zoddin,
Ghol
iz
adeh
,
Ra
caza
an
d
Nicassi
o
[
67
]
su
pp
or
te
d
the st
at
e
m
ent b
y suggesti
ng that hel
plessne
ss full
y m
ediat
ed
the re
la
ti
on
sh
i
p
bet
ween
pain
a
nd
m
easur
es
of
an
xiety
,
de
pr
essi
on,
a
nd
pe
rceive
d
s
tress
am
on
g
in
div
id
uals
who
su
f
fer
from
Sy
stem
ic
Lu
pu
s
E
ryt
he
m
at
os
us
(S
LE
)
;
in
oth
e
r
w
ord
s,
le
ar
ne
d
-
helpl
essness
ca
n
e
ve
n
e
xpla
in
t
he
con
t
rib
ution
of
pai
n
on
per
cei
ved
de
pr
ession
a
nd
str
ess
am
on
g
SL
E
pati
ents
.
In
sh
ort
,
le
arn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
is
re
qu
i
red
be
f
ore
a
ny
sy
m
pto
m
o
f
de
pr
essi
on ca
n b
e p
e
rceive
d by
ind
ivi
du
al
s
un
der certai
n l
ev
el
o
f
stress
.
2.4.
St
ate s
el
f
-
es
te
em a
nd
le
arne
d
-
helpl
essn
ess
a
s
double
me
diators
Con
te
xtu
al
ly
,
bo
t
h
dig
it
al
and
non
-
dig
it
al
form
of
bu
ll
yi
ng
c
on
t
rib
ute
to
a
var
ie
ty
of
ne
gativ
e
ou
tc
om
es
includi
ng
lo
we
r
s
el
f
-
est
eem
,
e
m
otion
al
dis
ord
ers,
an
d
ps
yc
hosoc
ia
l
pro
ble
m
s
that
m
ay
fo
ll
ow
ado
le
sce
nts
i
nto
a
dult
hood
[57]
.
T
he
dec
rea
se
in
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
and
it
s
correla
ti
on
to
psy
cho
l
og
ic
al
di
stress
is
al
so
docum
ented;
th
ree
dec
ades
a
go,
a
stu
dy
am
on
g
78
s
tud
e
nts
f
ro
m
New
Y
ork
U
ni
ver
sit
y
in
Br
oc
kport
su
ggest
e
d
that
sel
f
-
est
eem
pr
edict
s
le
arn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
[
58]
,
w
her
e
by
pa
rtic
ipants
wit
h
hi
gh
le
vels
of
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
tend
t
o per
for
m
b
et
te
r t
han th
os
e
with
lo
w
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
w
hen
t
hey
f
ace p
ro
l
onge
d fail
ur
e.
Additi
on
al
ly
,
base
d
on
the
hopeless
ness
t
he
or
y
of
depres
sion
[68]
,
hope
le
ssn
ess
m
igh
t
pr
e
dict
helple
ssn
ess
befo
re
le
adin
g
on
e
t
o
de
pr
es
sion.
I
n
li
ne
wit
h
that,
Ca
ka
r
a
nd
Savi
stu
die
d
33
8
stu
den
ts
of
Ce
la
l
Ba
ya
r
U
niv
e
rsity
,
Turkey,
and
re
porte
d
th
at
relat
ion
s
hip
s
betwe
en
sel
f
-
e
ste
e
m
and
hopel
essness
was
s
ign
ific
a
nt;
sel
f
-
est
eem
pr
edict
s
the
on
s
et
of
hopele
ssn
ess
[
69
]
.
On
t
he
oth
e
r
hand,
it
was
a
lso
re
ported
th
at
so
ci
al
m
edi
a
us
ers
with
a
dequate
sel
f
-
es
te
e
m
m
igh
t
respo
nd
sim
il
a
rly
aggressive
to
us
e
rs
who
t
ried
to
victim
i
ze
them
;
so
m
e
anonym
ou
s
at
ta
ck
in
the
for
m
of
exho
rtat
ion
s
to
su
ic
ide
ca
n
be
rep
li
ed
by
a
t
hreat
to
fin
d a
nd
kill
the
offe
nd
e
r
[70]
. T
his
ph
eno
m
enon i
nd
i
cat
es
that
a
n
a
de
quat
e
le
vel
of
se
lf
-
est
eem
m
ig
ht
dow
np
la
y
the
e
ffec
t
of
pe
rceive
d
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
on
t
he
le
arn
e
d
-
helples
sn
ess.
The
re
fore,
it
is
hypot
he
siz
ed
that
the
con
t
rib
ution
of
pe
rceive
d
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
a
tio
n
on
per
cei
ved
depr
ession
is
m
ediat
ed
by
sta
te
s
el
f
-
es
te
em
and
le
ar
ned
-
hel
plessness
.
T
he
hy
po
t
hetic
al
fr
am
ewor
k
can
be
il
lustrat
ed
as
a
double
m
ediat
ion
m
odel
in
Fig
ure
1.
Figure
1.
D
oubl
e
m
ediat
ion
m
od
el
3.
RESEA
R
CH MET
HO
D
In
order
t
o
te
st
the
hypotheti
c
al
m
od
el
il
lustrate
d
in
Fi
gure
1,
this
st
ud
y
i
s
de
sig
ne
d
as
c
orrelat
ion
al
stud
y
with
s
urvey
m
et
ho
d.
S
a
m
ple
siz
e
wa
s
obta
ine
d
f
rom
G*
Power
a
naly
sis;
pa
rtic
ipants
we
re
gat
her
e
d
thr
ough
pur
posive
sam
pling
m
et
ho
d,
by
ap
plyi
ng
sno
wb
a
ll
m
et
ho
d
t
hro
ugh
t
he
so
ci
al
m
edia
pag
es
of
th
e
researc
hers.
Stand
a
r
dized
sc
a
l
es w
ere
obtai
ne
d
in
or
der
t
o m
easur
e eac
h varia
bles.
3.1
.
Part
ic
ip
ants
and In
stru
men
ts
You
ng
a
dult
soc
ia
l
m
edia
us
er
s
wer
e
recr
uited
th
rou
gh
ha
phazard
a
nd
sno
wb
al
l
sam
pling
(N
=
116)
to
respo
nd
t
o
the
scal
es.
A
resea
rch
e
r
-
ge
ner
at
e
d
dem
ographic
qu
e
sti
onnaire
was
pre
par
e
d
wh
e
re
par
ti
ci
pa
nts
we
re
to
detai
l
their
a
ge,
ge
nd
e
r,
m
ajo
r
stu
died,
co
untry
of
stu
dy,
a
nd
co
untry
of
ori
gin.
Cy
be
rbul
ly
ing
Vict
im
izati
on
Scal
e
[
71]
w
as
use
d
to
m
easur
e
par
ti
ci
pa
nts’
ex
pe
rience
of
bein
g
cy
berb
ulli
ed.
T
he
27
-
it
e
m
scal
e
util
iz
e
a
5
-
po
i
nt
Li
ker
t
sc
al
e
ra
ng
i
ng
fro
m
1
(S
tr
ongly
Disag
ree)
to
5
(
Stron
gly
A
gr
ee
)
with
a
high
C
ron
bach
al
pha
of
0.95
[71]
.
Sam
ple
it
e
m
s
include
“I
hav
e
receiv
ed
m
ean
te
xt
m
essages
on
t
he
m
ob
il
e
phone
w
hich
m
ad
e
m
e
un
c
om
fo
rtable
” an
d
“Pe
ople
hav
e
s
pr
ea
d rum
or
s ab
out m
e
onli
ne
to
dam
age m
y repu
ta
t
ion
”.
Stat
e
Self
-
Este
e
m
Scal
e
[72]
was
us
ed t
o m
e
asur
e
pa
rtic
ipants’ c
urren
t
le
ve
ls
of
sel
f
-
est
e
e
m
. T
he 2
0
-
it
e
m
scal
e
util
i
ze
a
5
-
point
Li
ker
t
scal
e
rang
ing
f
ro
m
1
(
Str
ongly
Disag
ree
)
t
o
5
(S
t
ron
gly
A
gr
ee
)
with
a
hi
gh
Cronbac
h
al
ph
a
of
0.9
2.
Item
s
2,
4,
5,
7,
8,
10,
13,
15,
16,
17,
18,
19,
20
are
re
ver
se
-
sc
or
e
d.
Sam
ple
it
e
m
s
include
“I
feel
confide
nt
ab
out
m
y
abili
ti
es
”
and
“
I
feel
sat
isfie
d
wit
h
t
he
way
m
y
body
looks
rig
ht
now”.
Sam
ple
of
re
ve
rse
-
sc
ored
it
em
s
include
“
I
feel
f
ru
st
rated
or
ratt
le
d
a
bout
m
y
perform
ance”
an
d
“I
fee
l
disp
le
ase
d wit
h
m
yse
lf”.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
2019
:
563
-
574
568
Learn
e
d
Helpl
essness
Scal
e
[
73
]
was
us
e
d
to
m
easur
e
par
ti
c
ipant’s
le
vels
of
le
ar
ned
hel
ples
sn
ess
.
T
he
20
-
it
em
scal
e
util
iz
e
a
4
-
po
i
nt
Li
ker
t
scal
e
ra
ngin
g
from
1
(S
tr
ongly
Di
sagr
ee
)
to
4
(
S
tro
ng
ly
A
gr
ee
)
with
a
high
Cr
onbac
h
al
ph
a
of
0.9
47.
Sam
ple
it
em
s
include
“
I
cannot
fi
nd
so
l
utions
to
diff
ic
ult
pro
blem
s.”
and
“I
don’t
p
la
ce m
ys
el
f
in
sit
uati
ons i
n
w
hic
h
I
c
annot
reso
l
ve”.
Be
ck
De
pressi
on
I
nv
e
ntory
[
68
]
was
us
e
d
t
o
m
easur
e
par
t
ic
ipant’s
le
vels
of
pe
rceive
d
depressi
on.
The
21
-
it
em
scal
e
util
iz
e
a
set
of
f
our
possi
ble
res
pons
e
s
to
e
ach
quest
io
n.
S
a
m
ple
res
pons
e
to
quest
io
ns
i
nc
lud
e
“M
y
app
et
it
e
is
no
w
or
se
t
ha
n
usual
.”
,
“M
y
app
et
it
e
is
no
t
as
good
as
it
us
e
d
to
be
.”,
“
My
app
et
it
e
is
m
uch
worse now.”
a
nd
“I h
a
ve
no
a
pp
et
it
e
at
al
l
any
m
or
e
”.
The
r
esp
onses
a
re
s
cor
e
d
from
0
-
3,
w
he
n
the
t
ota
l
scor
e
is
0
-
10,
it
is
scor
e
d
as
no
t
de
pr
ess
ed
,
total
scor
e
s
of
11
-
16
is
scor
e
d
as
“
m
il
d
m
oo
d
dist
urba
nce”,
total
scor
es
of
17
-
20
is
sc
or
e
d
as
“
bor
de
rline
de
pressi
ve
sym
pto
m
s”,
total
sco
res
of
21
-
30
is
sc
or
e
d
as
“m
oderate
depressi
on
”
,
to
ta
l
scor
es
of
31
-
40
is
sco
red
as
“severe
de
pr
essi
on”,
an
d
total
scor
es
a
bove
4
0
is
sc
ored
as
“extrem
e
depre
ssion
”
.
3.2
.
Data
c
ollec
tio
n p
r
ocedure
Partic
ipants
w
ere
a
ppr
oach
e
d
an
d
as
ke
d
t
o
pa
rtic
ipate
in
t
he
stu
dy
via
so
c
ia
l
m
edia.
Part
ic
ipants
a
re
giv
e
n
a
li
nk
to
an
on
li
ne
G
oo
gle
f
or
m
to
fill
.
A
fter
read
i
ng
an
d
ag
reein
g
t
o
the
i
n
f
orm
ed
co
ns
ent,
Parti
ci
pan
ts
procee
d
t
o
fill
up
the
re
st
of
t
he
quest
io
nnai
re
in
the
f
ol
lowing
orde
r:
resea
rc
her
ge
ner
at
e
d
dem
ographic
qu
e
sti
onnaire
, th
e
Cyb
e
rBull
yi
ng
Vict
im
iz
a
ti
on
Scal
e,
Stat
e
Self
-
Este
em
Scal
e
(
SSES
),
Learn
e
d Helpl
essnes
s
Scal
e,
a
nd
la
s
tl
y
Be
ck'
s
Depre
ssion
Inve
nto
r
y
.
T
he
res
ponse
s
wer
e
s
ub
m
itted,
an
d
pa
rtic
ipants
wer
e
tha
nk
e
d.
On av
e
ra
ge par
ti
ci
pan
ts t
ook
no lo
ng
e
r
t
han
45
m
inu
te
s to
c
om
plete
the on
li
ne
quest
io
nn
a
ire.
4.
RESU
LT
S
AND A
N
ALYSIS
Mult
iple
regre
ssion
m
et
ho
d
was
util
iz
ed
to
a
naly
ze
the
co
ll
ect
ed
data.
T
he
analy
ses
we
re
co
nducte
d
by
us
in
g
PR
O
CESS
Ma
cr
o
ver
si
on
3
[
74]
for
SPS
S
20,
in
orde
r
to
c
onduct
the
bo
otstrap
m
et
ho
d
to
te
st
the
do
uble
m
e
diati
on
.
Bo
otst
rap
m
et
ho
d
wa
s
util
iz
ed
i
n
th
e
data
a
naly
ses
beca
us
e
it
is
one
of
the
m
o
st
rob
us
t
m
et
ho
d
t
o
a
nal
yz
e
m
ulti
ple r
egr
essi
on w
it
hout con
du
ct
i
ng
assum
ption
tes
ts
[74]
.
4.1
.
The t
otal ef
fec
t of
percei
ved
cyber
-
victimi
z
at
i
on
on perce
ived de
pressio
n
Table
1
il
lustr
at
es
the
total
e
ff
ect
of
per
cei
ved
cy
be
r
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
on
pe
rceive
d
de
pr
es
sion.
In
thi
s
ta
ble, the
predi
ct
or
was
ta
ken
as a m
od
el
, wh
ere the
m
ediato
rs
are
not c
ontrolle
d.
Table
1
.
T
otal
eff
ect
of the m
od
el
Percei
ved Cy
ber
-
victi
m
i
zat
ion
a
n
d Pe
r
cei
ved
De
pr
es
s
ion
,
N
=
104
9
5
% CI
Ef
f
ect
co
ef
f
R
-
sq
F
Df
1
Df
2
t
p
Lower
Up
p
er
Total
0
.32
1
0
.25
9
3
6
.1
08
1
.00
0
1
0
3
.000
6
.01
0
.00
0
0
.21
5
0
.42
8
Ou
tco
m
e vari
ab
le:
Perceived
dep
ressi
o
n
Perceive
d
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
as
a
m
od
el
sign
ific
a
ntly
pr
e
dicts
pe
rceived
-
depressio
n
[F
(
1,
103)
=36.11,
p<
0
.
00
1],
a
nd
ex
plain
s
25.
96%
of
th
e
va
riance
(R²=
.26).
As
a
pre
dictor,
pe
rceive
d
cy
ber
-
victi
m
izati
on
sign
ific
a
ntly
pr
edict
s
pe
rceive
d
-
de
pr
essi
on
[
β
=
0.3
2,
t
(10
3)=6
.01,
p<
0
.
00
1].
T
his
i
nd
ic
a
te
s
that
as
pe
rc
ei
ved
cy
ber
-
victi
m
izati
on
i
ncr
ea
ses
by
one
po
i
nt,
per
cei
ved
-
de
pr
ession
si
gn
ific
antly
increa
ses
by
0.3
2
po
i
nts,
a
nd
the pre
dictor
c
an
e
xp
la
in
26
% of the
v
a
rian
ce o
f
the
inc
re
m
ent.
4.2
.
Indirec
t
e
ff
ec
t
s
The
f
ollow
i
ng
Table
2
il
lust
r
at
es
the
res
ults
of
t
he
bootstr
app
i
ng
a
naly
ses
as
i
ndirect
e
f
fects
of
this
current
stu
dy.
Table
2
.
Re
la
ti
on
s
hi
p betwee
n
Pe
rceive
d
Cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
a
tio
n an
d Percei
ve
d Depressi
on,
with Stat
e Sel
f
-
Este
em
an
d
L
earn
e
d Helples
sn
ess a
s m
ediat
or
s,
N
=
104
9
5
% CI
Ef
f
ect
Ef
f
ect
Bo
o
tSE
Lower
Up
p
er
Direct
Predicto
r
→
Outco
m
e
(p=.0
2
9
)
0
.10
8
0
.04
6
0
.13
1
0
.30
9
Ind
1
Predicto
r
→
M
1
→
Outco
m
e
0
.10
1
0
.03
5
0
.04
0
0
.17
9
Ind
2
Predicto
r
→
M
2
→
Outco
m
e
0
.05
4
0
.02
8
0
.00
9
0
.11
6
Ind
3
Predicto
r
→
M
1
→ M
2
→
Outco
m
e
0
.05
8
0
.02
4
0
.02
0
0
.11
4
Predicto
r
=
perceiv
ed
cy
b
er
-
v
icti
m
i
za
tio
n
M1 = state
self
-
est
ee
m
M2 = lea
rned
-
h
elp
less
n
ess
Ou
tco
m
e =
perceiv
ed
-
d
ep
ressio
n
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Dou
ble m
e
dia
t
ion
ro
le
of self
-
est
eem
and
le
arne
d
-
helpless
ne
ss
…
(
Kus
us
anto
Prih
ad
i
)
569
The
in
direct
e
ffec
t
of
per
cei
ve
d
cy
be
r
-
victim
i
zat
ion
on
pe
rce
ived
-
de
pr
e
ssio
n
th
rou
gh
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
was
sig
nifica
nt,
b=
0.10
as
the
bias
-
c
orrecte
d
bootstra
p
c
onfide
nce
inter
va
l
based
on
5000
sam
ples
do
e
s
no
t
con
ta
in
ze
ro,
[
0.040,
0.179], i
nd
ic
at
in
g
t
hat
m
ediat
ion
li
kel
y occ
ur
s
. Fu
rth
erm
or
e, the
sec
ond i
ndirect
e
f
fect i
s
the
betwee
n
per
cei
ved
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
a
nd
pe
rceiv
ed
-
de
pr
essi
on
thr
ough
le
a
rn
e
d
helpless
ness
.
T
he
relat
ion
s
hip
wa
s
sig
nificant
,
b=
0.54
as
the
bi
as
-
co
rr
ect
e
d
bo
otstrap
c
onfide
nce
i
nter
val
ba
sed
on
5000
sa
m
ples
do
e
s
not
c
on
ta
i
n
ze
r
o,
[
0.009,
0.116],
in
dicat
ing
that
m
ediat
i
on
li
kely
occ
urs.
T
he
do
ub
le
m
ediat
ion
a
ls
o
li
kely
occurs
wh
e
n
th
e
third
i
nd
i
rect
eff
ect
,
wh
ic
h
is
betwee
n
pe
rce
ived
cy
be
r
-
vict
i
m
iz
ation
an
d
pe
rceive
d
-
de
pr
e
ssion
thr
ough
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
and
le
ar
ne
d
help
le
ssn
ess
is
sig
nificant,
b=0.06
as
the
bias
-
correct
ed
bo
otstr
a
p
confide
nce
int
erv
al
based
on
1000
sam
ples
do
es
not
co
ntain
zer
o,
[
0.0
20,
0.114],
in
dicat
ing
that
the
double
m
ediat
ion
li
kel
y
occ
ur
s
.
A
dd
it
ion
al
ly
,
t
he
dir
ect
effe
ct
of
th
e
pre
dictor
on
t
he
outc
om
e
(contr
olli
ng
f
or
th
e
fir
st
and
sec
ond
m
ediat
or
s
)
s
howe
d
that
the predi
ct
or
is
no
l
onge
r
sig
nifica
nt
i
n
99%
c
onfide
nce
i
nterv
al
(
p=
.029).
In o
t
her
w
ords, al
l t
he
hy
poth
eses of t
his cur
ren
t st
ud
y a
re supp
or
te
d.
4.3
.
Supp
le
men
t
ar
y
analyses
Table
3
a
nd
Ta
ble
4
dep
ic
t
t
he
sup
plem
entary
analy
ses
c
onduct
ed
to
sup
plem
ent
the
resu
lt
of
the
m
ai
n
analy
ses.
Ta
ble
3
s
hows
the
total
eff
ect
of
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
on
pe
rceive
d
-
de
pr
essi
on,
a
nd
Table
4
il
lustrate
s
the m
ediat
ion
role o
f
le
ar
ne
d
-
helpless
ness.
Table
3.
T
otal
eff
ect
of the m
od
el
Stat
e Self
-
est
eem
an
d
Pe
rceive
d Depres
sion, N=
10
4
9
5
% CI
Ef
f
ect
co
ef
f
R
-
sq
F
Df
1
Df
2
t
p
Lower
Up
p
er
St SE
-
0
.30
0
.55
6
1
.85
2
.00
1
0
2
.00
1
.81
0
.00
-
0
.46
-
0
.15
Ou
tco
m
e vari
ab
le:
Perceived
dep
ressi
o
n
Stat
e
sel
f
-
est
e
e
m
as
a
m
od
el
si
gn
ific
a
nt
ly
pr
e
dicts
pe
rceive
d
-
de
pr
e
ssion,
[F(2
,
102)=6
1.8
5,
p<
0
.00
1],
as
well
as
exp
la
i
ni
ng
54.81%
of
the
var
ia
nce
(
R²=
0
.55
).
As
a
pr
e
dictor
,
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
m
od
el
sign
ific
a
ntly
red
uce
s
pe
rcei
ved
-
depressio
n
[b
=
-
0
.30,
t
(10
2)
=
1.81,
p<
0
.
001].
T
his
ind
ic
at
es
that
wh
e
n
per
cei
ved
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
increases
by
one
poi
nt,
pe
rceive
d
-
de
pr
e
ssio
n
si
gnific
antly
decre
ases
by
0.3
0
points,
and
the
pr
e
dictor
ca
n
e
xpla
in
m
os
t
of
the
of
t
he
var
ia
nc
e
of
t
he
re
duct
ion
(a
bout
55
%
).
Be
f
or
e
a
naly
zi
ng
f
ur
t
her
on
t
he
m
ediat
ion
r
ole
of
le
ar
ne
d
-
helpless
ness
,
ano
t
her
a
naly
s
is
on
t
he
pr
e
dict
ion
of
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
on
le
a
rn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
is
repor
te
d
in
Ta
ble 4.
Table
4
.
C
on
t
ribu
ti
on
of the
stat
e self
-
est
eem
on lear
ne
d
-
hel
plessne
ss, N=
104
9
5
% CI
Ef
f
ect
co
ef
f
R
-
sq
F
Df
1
Df
2
t
p
Lower
Up
p
er
St SE
-
0
.67
4
0
.54
3
1
2
2
.560
1
.00
0
1
0
3
.000
-
1
1
.07
1
>
0
.00
0
-
0
.79
4
-
0
.55
3
Ou
tco
m
e vari
ab
le:
Lear
n
ed
help
less
n
ess
As
s
how
n
in
Table
4,
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
is
a
sign
ific
a
nt
ne
ga
ti
ve
pr
e
dicto
r
for
le
ar
ned
-
he
lplessness
[F
(
1,
10
3)
=
122.5
6,
p<
0
.
00
1],
the
po
wer
of
it
s
co
ntributi
on
i
s
co
ns
ide
re
d
st
ron
g
(
β=
-
0
.
67)
and
it
ex
plains
54%
of
t
he
va
riance
(R²=
0
.
543).
I
n
oth
e
r
w
ords
,
wh
e
n
sel
f
-
est
e
e
m
is
increased
by
one
po
i
nt,
t
her
e
is
a
54%
c
han
ce
s
of
le
a
rn
e
d
-
hel
pl
essness
t
o
be
r
edu
ce
d
by
0.6
7
points.
T
he
m
ediat
ion
ro
le
of
le
arn
e
d
-
helples
sn
ess
is
s
umm
a
riz
ed
in Ta
ble 5
.
Table
5
.
Re
la
ti
on
s
hi
p betwee
n
sta
te
self
-
est
ee
m
an
d pe
rceived de
pressi
on
,
with lear
ne
d
-
he
lplessness
as
a m
ediat
or
, N
=
104
9
5
% CI
Ef
f
ect
Ef
f
ect
SE/Bo
o
tSE
Lower
Up
p
er
Direct
Predicto
r
→
Outco
m
e
-
0
.30
4
0
.07
8
-
0
.45
9
-
0
.14
9
Ind
irect
Co
n
trollin
g
f
o
r
M
-
0
.24
2
0
.08
0
-
0
.41
0
-
0
.09
5
Table
5
s
hows
that
he
in
dire
ct
eff
ect
of
sel
f
-
est
eem
on
pe
rceive
d
-
depres
sion
t
hro
ugh
st
at
e
le
arn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
w
as
sig
nificant,
b=
-
.24
19
as
t
he
bias
-
c
orrecte
d
bootstra
p
c
onfide
nce
i
nterv
al
base
d
on
5000
sam
ples
do
es
no
t
c
onta
in
ze
ro,
[
-
.
4097,
-
.
0947]
,
in
d
ic
at
ing
that
le
ar
ne
d
-
helpless
ness
is
li
kely
to
m
ediat
e
the contri
bu
ti
on
of stat
e self
-
e
ste
e
m
in
dec
re
asi
ng p
e
rceive
d depressi
on.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
2019
:
563
-
574
570
The
ne
xt
sup
ple
m
entary
anal
ysi
s
is
a
bout
th
e
relat
io
nship
betwee
n
the
pe
rceive
d
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
on
sta
te
sel
f
-
e
s
te
e
m
.
This
li
nk
ho
l
ds
a
n
im
po
rta
nt
inf
orm
ation
on
the
nat
ur
e
of
how
t
he
perce
ptio
n
of
bein
g
cy
berbu
ll
ie
d
m
igh
t a
ff
ect
one’
s self
-
e
ste
em
.
The res
ult i
s sum
m
arized in
T
able 6
.
Table
6.
Rel
at
ion
s
hi
p betwee
n percei
ved cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
a
tio
n an
d st
at
e self
-
est
eem
, N
=
1
04
9
5
% CI
Ef
f
ect
co
ef
f
R
-
sq
F
Df
1
Df
2
t
P
Lower
Up
p
er
Prc
CV
-
.35
.19
2
4
.68
1
.00
1
0
3
.00
-
4
.97
.00
-
.49
-
.21
Ou
tco
m
e vari
ab
le:
State self
-
estee
m
Perceive
d
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
sig
nifica
ntly
pr
e
dicts
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
,
[F
(1,
103)=2
4.68,
p<
.
001]
,
as
well
as
exp
l
ai
nin
g
19%
of
the
var
ia
nce
(
R²=
.1
9).
As
a
pr
e
dictor
,
pe
rc
ei
ved
cy
be
r
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
ne
gativel
y
con
t
rib
utes
to
sta
te
sel
f
-
ste
em
[b
=
-
.35,
t
(10
3)
=
-
4.9
7,
p<
.001
]
.
T
his
i
nd
ic
at
es
that
wh
e
n
per
cei
ve
d
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
i
ncr
ease
s
by
one
po
i
nt,
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
sign
ific
a
ntly
de
creases
by
0.3
5
po
i
nts.
How
ever,
the
pr
e
dictor
can
e
xpla
in
l
ess
tha
n
20%
of
the
var
ia
nce
(R²=.
19).
The
fi
nd
i
ng
su
ggest
s
that
des
pite
the
neg
at
i
ve
c
on
t
rib
ution
of
per
cei
ved
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
is
str
ong,
t
he
cha
nc
e
of
ha
ving
one’s
sta
t
e
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
d
ecreas
ed by bei
ng cyber
bull
ie
d
is l
e
ss tha
n 20
%
.
5.
DISCU
SSI
ON
The
ai
m
of
t
his
stud
y
was
to
in
vestigat
e
w
hether
le
ar
ne
d
-
helplessne
ss
a
nd
s
ta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
can
ex
plai
n
the
co
ntri
bu
ti
on
of
per
cei
ve
d
cy
be
r
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
on
pe
rceive
d
depre
ssion.
Past
st
ud
ie
s
i
n
the
area
of
cy
berbu
ll
yi
ng
hav
e
c
onsist
en
tl
y
sh
own
that
ind
ivi
du
al
s
who
perce
ive
the
m
se
lves
to
be
cy
berbu
ll
ie
d
ar
e
m
or
e
li
kely
to
ex
peri
ence
sym
pto
m
s
of
de
pr
essi
on
[
32,
33
]
.
Si
m
il
arly
,
the
re
su
lt
s
f
ro
m
this
stud
y
i
ndic
at
ed
that
per
cei
ved
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
as
a
m
od
el
si
gn
i
ficantl
y
pre
dicts
le
ar
ned
-
he
lplessness
th
r
ough
l
ow
e
rin
g
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
and
inc
reasin
g
l
earn
e
d
-
helples
sn
ess.
T
his
fin
ding
is
s
uppor
te
d
by
t
he
ho
pelessne
ss
the
or
y
of
depressi
on
[
68]
that
helpless
ne
ss
m
igh
t
pr
e
dict
hopeless
ness
befo
re
le
adi
ng
one
to
de
pr
e
ss
ion
.
This
is
bec
aus
e
so
ci
al
m
edia
use
rs
a
re
le
ss
li
kely
to
e
xperie
nce
per
cei
ved
depressi
on
as
a
direct
outc
om
e
of
per
cei
ved
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
,
because
le
ar
ne
d
helpless
nes
s
usual
ly
devel
op
s
over
ti
m
e,
wh
ic
h
s
ubse
qu
e
ntly
res
ults
in
per
cei
ved
de
pr
ession.
M
or
e
over
,
the
te
nden
cy
to
ex
pe
rienc
e
le
arn
e
d
helpl
essness
can
be
lowe
red
by
a
de
qu
at
e
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
e
e
m
,
ind
ic
at
in
g
that
pe
rceived
cy
be
r
-
vic
tim
iz
at
ion
ca
nnot
directl
y
ex
plain
perce
ived
depressi
on
as
an
outc
om
e.
T
his f
i
nd
i
ng als
o s
upports
the
repor
ts
of
Caka
r
a
nd Sa
vi
(2
014) that
d
ec
rease
d sel
f
-
est
ee
m
p
red
ic
t
s the
onset
of
hopeless
ness
[
69]
.
Nev
e
rtheless
,
there
a
re
se
veral
i
m
po
rtant
fi
nd
i
ngs
apa
rt
f
ro
m
the
fact
that
al
l
the
hypo
t
heses
a
re
su
pp
or
te
d.
Firs
t,
al
though
t
he
first
hy
po
t
hesi
s
was
sup
ported,
t
he
total
ef
fe
ct
of
t
he
m
od
el
of
pe
rceive
d
c
yber
-
victim
iz
ation
s
ign
ific
a
ntly
predict
s
per
cei
ve
d
de
pressi
on,
i
t
can
only
expl
ai
n
26%
of
th
e
var
ia
nce
(R²
=.26)
,
wh
ic
h
m
eans
that
pe
rceive
d
cy
ber
-
victi
m
izati
on
co
u
l
d
no
t
be
the
do
m
inant
facto
r
of
pe
rceive
d
de
pre
ssion
;
apar
t
f
ro
m
the
per
ce
ptio
n
of
be
ing
cy
be
rbulli
ed,
sta
te
sel
f
-
es
te
e
m
,
or
le
arn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
,
there
are
sti
ll
m
any
po
s
sible
facto
r
s in
vo
l
ved in
t
he de
velo
pm
ent o
f
per
cei
ved
depressi
on am
ong social
m
edia
us
e
rs. Ot
her
factors
that
m
igh
t
be
i
nvolv
e
d
a
re
f
or
exam
ple:
pro
longed
po
ver
ty
[53]
,
e
xp
e
rien
ce
of
bei
ng
vic
tim
iz
ed
offli
ne
[33]
,
or
re
duced
sel
f
-
co
nce
pt
[
42]
.
The
sm
al
l
siz
e
of
the
R²
m
igh
t
al
so
s
upport
th
e
cl
ai
m
of
Olw
eus
[
37
]
,
who
s
ta
te
d
that
cy
berbu
ll
y
ing
is
ge
ner
al
ly
le
ss
prevale
nt
than
offli
ne
bu
l
ly
ing
,
becau
se
tho
se
w
ho
are
cy
ber
-
victi
m
ized
ar
e
the sam
e p
eo
ple who g
ot
victi
m
iz
ed
offli
ne.
The
s
eco
nd
i
m
po
rtant
fi
nd
i
ng
is
that
the
sig
nificance
of
the
direct
eff
ect
of
pe
rc
ei
ved
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
was
droppe
d
w
hen
co
ntr
olli
ng
for
the
m
ediat
or
s
(stat
e
sel
f
-
e
ste
e
m
and
le
ar
ned
-
helpless
ne
ss).
As
com
par
ed
t
o
in
div
id
uals
with
inade
qu
at
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
,
ind
ivi
du
al
s
with
ade
qu
at
e
sel
f
-
est
e
e
m
te
nd
t
o
have
m
or
e
sel
f
-
re
sp
ect
an
d
a
re
m
or
e
ass
erti
ve
[65]
.
Th
is
sug
gests
t
ha
t
perce
ive
d
cy
berb
ully
ing
wi
ll
no
t
nece
ssari
ly
le
ad
to
pe
rceive
d
de
pr
es
sio
n
if
th
ey
do
not
valu
e
them
sel
ves
neg
at
ively
an
d/o
r
le
ar
n
t
hat
th
ey
are
helpless
.
Th
i
s
fin
ding
is
in
li
ne
with
t
he
stu
dy
of
C
ho
i
a
nd
Cho
i
[69]
,
that
adequate
sel
f
-
e
ste
e
m
le
vel
pro
te
ct
s
ind
ivi
du
al
s
from
hav
i
ng
de
pr
ess
ive
m
ood.
H
oweve
r,
it
has
be
en
f
ound
t
hat
cy
berbu
ll
yi
ng
i
s
a
str
onge
r
pr
edict
or
of
depr
essive
sy
m
pto
m
s
than
offli
ne
bull
yi
ng
due
to
it
s
prol
onge
d
acce
s
sibil
it
y
[26
]
,
w
hich
inte
ns
ifie
d
their
e
xperie
nce
of
bein
g
cy
berb
ul
li
ed
an
d
e
ve
nt
ually
increase
s
le
ar
ned
-
he
lp
le
ssn
ess
an
d
decr
ease
s
sta
t
e
sel
f
-
e
ste
em
.
Th
us,
fin
dings
of
this
stud
y
al
so
s
up
port
the
re
port
of
P
rzybyl
sk
i,
et
al
.
[7
2
]
that
t
he
F
OMO
am
on
g
s
ocial
m
edi
a
us
ers
cou
l
d be a c
ont
rib
uting fact
or
of p
e
rceive
d d
epr
es
sio
n
as a
re
su
lt
of cybe
r
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
.
Fr
om
the
sup
plem
entary
analy
sis,
it
was
al
so
in
dicat
ed
that
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
as
a
m
od
el
has
a
sign
ific
a
nt
ne
ga
ti
ve
relat
ion
s
hip
with
pe
rcei
ved
de
pr
es
sio
n,
an
d
it
can
e
xpla
in
m
or
e
tha
n
hal
f
of
the
va
riance
(R²=
54.
81);
m
or
eov
er
,
the
powe
r
of
it
s
con
t
rib
ution
is
consi
de
red
st
ron
g
(β=
-
0.30)
.
It
in
dicat
es
that
the
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
In
t J
E
val & R
es Educ
.
IS
S
N:
22
52
-
8822
Dou
ble m
e
dia
t
ion
ro
le
of self
-
est
eem
and
le
arne
d
-
helpless
ne
ss
…
(
Kus
us
anto
Prih
ad
i
)
571
pr
ese
nce
of
a
de
qu
at
e
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
m
igh
t
protect
ind
i
vid
uals
from
falling
int
o
pe
rcei
ved
de
pr
essi
on
.
Stat
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
al
s
o
sig
nifica
ntly
decr
ea
se
le
ar
ned
hel
plessne
ss
by
m
or
e
th
an
50%
c
ha
nc
e
(R²=
.
54),
a
nd
t
he
con
t
rib
ution
is
consi
de
red
st
r
ong,
beca
us
e
on
e
-
po
i
nt
incr
e
m
ent
of
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
m
igh
t
re
duce
le
arn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
by
0.
67
po
i
nts.
Ther
e
f
or
e,
le
a
r
ned
-
helpless
ne
ss
sign
i
ficantl
y
changes
t
he
stren
gth
of
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
in
re
duci
ng
pe
rceive
d
de
pr
es
sio
n;
soc
ia
l
m
edia
us
e
rs
per
sist
e
ntly
feel
cy
berb
ulli
ed
du
e
to
t
heir
high
fr
e
qu
e
ncy
of
e
xposure
to
t
he
de
r
og
at
or
y
co
m
m
ents
or
posts
di
rected
to
wards
them
,
r
esulti
ng
in
i
nc
rease
d
per
cei
ved
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation,
w
hich
eve
ntua
ll
y
red
uce
the
ade
qu
acy
of
their
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
,
increas
e
their
le
arn
e
d
-
helples
sn
ess,
w
hich
w
il
l
su
bse
que
ntly
increa
se
pe
rc
ei
ved
depressi
on.
This
fi
nd
i
ng
sup
ports
t
he
stud
y
of
Y
o
u
ng
et
al
.
[
22]
that
s
oci
al
m
edia
us
ers
with
ade
quat
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
w
ho
ha
ve
not
le
arn
e
d
t
hat
the
y
are
helpless m
igh
t
even res
pond
a
ggressi
vely
to
t
ho
s
e wh
o
at
te
m
pted
to v
ic
ti
m
iz
e the
m
.
More
ov
e
r,
th
e
seco
nd
s
upple
m
entary
analy
sis
ind
ic
at
ed
tha
t
the
pr
e
valenc
e
of
hav
i
ng
perce
ived
cy
be
r
-
victim
iz
ation
r
edu
ci
ng
sta
te
s
el
f
-
est
eem
is
no
t
le
ss
t
han
20
%.
T
his
m
eans
that
le
ss
tha
n
20%
of
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
decr
ease
c
an
be
exp
la
in
ed
by
the
increm
ent
of
per
cei
ved
c
yber
-
victi
m
iz
ation
,
a
nd
that
th
ere
is
a
la
rg
e
r
par
t
of
st
at
e
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
that
is
inde
pe
nd
e
nt f
r
om
be
ing
cy
be
rbulli
ed.
T
his f
in
ding
is
i
n
li
ne
w
it
h t
he
repor
t
o
f
B
rew
e
r
and
Ke
rslake
[38]
that
on
ly
ind
i
viduals
w
it
h
low
sco
re
of
sel
f
-
est
eem
te
nd
to
e
xpe
rience
bein
g
c
yber
-
victim
iz
ed.
A
par
t
f
r
om
tha
t,
past
resea
rc
h
h
as
sho
wn
that
sel
f
-
est
e
e
m
serv
es
as
protect
ive
fa
ct
or
of
ps
yc
holo
gical
well
-
bei
ng
[65,
67]
a
nd
li
fe
s
a
ti
sfacti
on
[
75
]
.
The
im
plica
t
ion
of
t
he
sta
te
m
ent
is
that
im
pr
ov
i
ng
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
can
reduce
the
ne
gative
ef
fect
of
bein
g
c
yber
bu
ll
ie
d.
T
he
im
plica
ti
on
is
sup
ported
by
the
repor
t
of
Y
oung
a
nd
c
ollea
gu
es
[
70
]
that
in
di
vid
uals
with
a
dequate
le
vel
of
sel
f
-
est
eem
are
m
or
e
li
kely
respond
si
m
il
arl
y aggre
ssive to
the
off
end
e
r, an
d d
o no
t
pe
rc
ei
ve
t
hem
sel
ves
to
be helple
ss.
5.1
.
Pract
ic
al impl
ic
at
io
ns
This
stu
dy
co
nt
ribu
te
s
to
t
he
existi
ng
li
te
rat
ur
e
on
cy
ber
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
by
exam
ining
the
e
m
pirical
data
on
t
he
m
e
diati
ng
r
oles
of
le
ar
ned
hel
plessness
an
d
st
at
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
.
Wh
il
e
one
-
po
int
dec
rease
of
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
eem
m
i
gh
t
ex
pla
in
m
or
e
t
han
50
%
c
ha
nces
of
t
he
0.67
po
i
nts
in
cre
m
ent
of
le
ar
ne
d
helpless
ness
,
m
os
t
of
t
he
dec
rease
in
sel
f
-
e
ste
em
has
no
t
hing
to
do
with
cy
berb
ully
ing
;
the
perce
ived
cy
ber
-
vi
ct
i
m
iz
at
ion
can
only
exp
la
in
19%
of
the c
hange i
n st
at
e self
-
est
ee
m
.
The
pr
act
ic
al
im
pl
ic
at
ion
of
t
his
fi
nd
i
ng
is
that
it
is
i
m
per
a
ti
ve
f
or
e
ducat
or
s
or
par
e
nts
t
o
pay
extr
a
effor
t
i
n
creati
ng
sta
te
sel
f
-
e
s
te
e
m
sta
bili
t
y
fo
r
t
he
y
ounger
gen
e
rati
on
in
orde
r
for
them
to
dev
el
op
m
or
e
sta
ble
adequate
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
.
As
s
ugge
ste
d
by
Pr
i
had
i
a
nd
Ch
ua
[5]
,
e
ducat
ors
m
igh
t
util
iz
e
so
ci
al
m
edia
su
ch
as
Faceb
ook
to
im
pr
ov
e
sel
f
-
es
te
e
m
adequac
y
an
d
ge
ner
al
res
pons
i
bili
ty
am
on
g
ad
ole
scents.
K
nowi
ng
that
sta
ble
a
dequat
e
sel
f
-
e
ste
em
protect
s
yo
ung
so
ci
al
m
edia
us
e
rs
f
ro
m
le
a
rn
e
d
-
helpless
ness
an
d
pe
rc
ei
ved
-
depressi
on
s
ca
us
e
d
by
pe
rcei
ved
cy
ber
-
victi
m
iz
at
ion
,
it
is
al
so
im
po
rtant
for
ed
ucati
on
al
sta
keholders
to
be
wiser
in
in
str
at
egizi
ng
thei
r
m
et
ho
d
of
as
sign
i
ng
st
ud
e
nt
s
to
their
res
pecti
ve
cl
assr
oom
s;
so
m
e
stu
dies,
su
c
h
a
s
Pr
iha
di
et
al
.
[64
,
65]
as
well
as
Ism
ai
l
and
Ma
j
eed
[
76
]
s
uggeste
d
that
assigni
ng
stu
de
nts
t
o
sp
eci
fic
cl
assr
oom
s
base
d
on
t
heir
pre
vious
a
cadem
ic
resu
lt
s
m
igh
t
j
e
opar
di
ze
their
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
ade
qu
acy
in
t
he
long
run.
F
or
e
xam
p
le
,
stud
e
nt
s
with
good
ac
adem
ic
achieve
m
ent
who
a
re
gro
up
e
d
t
og
et
he
r
te
nd
t
o
hav
e
highe
r
sel
f
-
est
eem
;
w
her
eas
st
udents
with
po
or
aca
dem
ic
achievem
ent
who
are
gro
up
e
d
to
geth
er
te
nd
t
o
ha
ve
lowe
r
sel
f
-
est
eem
.
Thu
s
,
a
pply
ing
m
ixed
-
a
bili
ty
gro
up
i
ng
m
igh
t
furth
e
r
prote
ct
younge
r
so
c
ia
l
m
edia
us
er
s
f
ro
m
neg
at
ive
ef
fect
of
per
cei
ve
d c
yber
-
victi
m
iz
ation
.
6.
CONCL
US
I
O
N
This
st
ud
y
pro
vid
es
insig
hts
t
o
e
du
cat
or
s
an
d
e
du
cat
i
on
sta
keholde
rs
t
hat w
hile percei
ve
d
depressi
on
a
m
on
g
univ
ers
it
y
stud
ents
ca
n
be
c
onside
re
d
pr
e
valent,
th
ei
r
so
ci
al
m
edia
be
hav
i
or
s
hould
not b
e
ta
ke
n
as
the
culp
rit.
Fin
dings
of
st
ud
y
i
nd
ic
at
ed
that
neg
at
ive
ex
pe
rience
in
so
ci
al
m
edia
(in
the
f
or
m
of
bein
g
cy
bervict
i
m
iz
e
d)
will
not
pred
ic
t
their
per
cei
ved
de
pressi
on
,
unle
ss
they
le
arn
e
d
t
hat
they
are
helpless,
a
nd
th
at
their
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
is
sh
ak
en
by
the
e
xpe
rience.
M
or
e
ov
er,
fi
nd
i
ngs
of
this
stud
y
s
ugge
ste
d
that
pe
rc
ei
ved
cy
ber
-
victi
m
izati
on
as
a
m
odel
can
only
ex
plain
26%
of
pe
rceive
d
de
pre
ssion
ca
ses,
in
dicat
ing
t
hat
th
ere
are
sti
ll
oth
er
ris
k
f
act
or
s
of
per
cei
ved
de
pr
es
sio
n
beyo
nd
cy
ber
-
victim
iz
ation
that
nee
d
to
be
s
tud
ie
d.
O
n
the
oth
e
r
hand,
st
at
e
sel
f
-
est
eem
exp
la
ins
55%
of
pe
rceive
d
de
pres
sion.
Th
us,
ot
her
facto
rs
s
uc
h
as
s
ocial
eco
no
m
ic
sta
tus,
e
du
cat
i
on
le
vels
of
pa
ren
ts,
pe
rceive
d
par
e
nting
sty
le
s
of
t
he
par
e
nts,
a
nd
any
oth
er
facto
rs
that
m
igh
t
le
ad
to
dif
fer
e
nt
att
it
ud
e to
wards sel
f
s
houl
d
be
e
xam
ined
in
futur
e
stu
dies
Additi
on
al
ly
,
f
ind
in
gs
of
this
cu
rr
e
nt
stu
dy
cou
l
d
ha
ve
be
en
m
or
e
ge
ne
r
al
iz
able
by
col
le
ct
ing
data
from
a
m
or
e
he
te
rogen
e
ous
popula
ti
on.
D
ue
to
the
haphaza
rd
sam
pling
m
et
hod,
m
os
t
of
the
par
ti
ci
pa
nts
w
er
e
highly
ed
ucate
d
a
nd
reside
i
n
urba
n
area.
Their
rea
ct
io
n
towa
rd
s
cy
be
r
bu
ll
yi
ng
at
te
m
pts
m
igh
t
be
di
ff
ere
nt
from
young
ad
ults
who
are
not
e
xpos
e
d
to
higher
e
du
cat
i
on
or
li
ve
in
r
ural
are
as.
T
hu
s
,
st
ud
ie
s
with
a
la
r
ge
r
sam
ple
siz
e
an
d
a
m
or
e
heter
og
e
ne
ous
sam
ple
a
re
highly
su
ggest
e
d.
F
ur
t
her
m
or
e,
a
qua
li
ta
ti
ve
ver
si
on
of
this
current
stu
dy
i
s
al
so
highly
s
uggeste
d
i
n
or
der
to
ob
ta
in
de
eper
underst
and
i
ng
on
how
sta
te
sel
f
-
est
ee
m
and
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
IS
S
N
:
2252
-
8822
In
t.
J
.
Eval
.
&
Re
s
.
E
du
c
.
Vo
l
.
8
, No
.
4
,
Dec
e
m
ber
2019
:
563
-
574
572
le
arn
e
d
-
helples
sn
ess
m
ediat
e
d
t
he
co
ntribu
ti
on
of
pe
rceived
cy
be
r
-
vict
i
m
iz
ation
on
per
cei
ved
depr
ession;
m
or
eov
er
,
qua
li
ta
ti
ve
st
ud
ie
s
will
al
so
he
lp
the
sta
ke
ho
l
der
s
to
ga
in
de
epe
r
in
sigh
ts
on
t
he
f
act
or
s
that
enc
oura
ge
s a
s
ocial
m
ed
i
a u
se
r
to
b
ec
om
e a
cy
berbu
ll
y.
Othe
r
facto
rs
r
el
at
ed
to
the
usa
ge
of
s
ocial
m
edia,
su
c
h
as
the
fr
e
quency
of
us
a
ge,
ty
pe
s
of
s
ocial
m
edia,
prefe
rred
c
o
nte
nt
to
com
m
ent
to,
a
s
well
as
at
ti
tud
e
to
wards
onli
ne
a
nonym
i
ty
are
al
so
s
ugge
ste
d
for
f
uture
st
ud
i
es,
to
gethe
r
with
onli
ne
s
ha
ring
be
ha
vio
r
th
at
m
igh
t
put
ce
rtai
n
s
ocial
m
e
dia
us
e
rs
vulne
rab
le
to
cy
be
rbulli
es.
H
ence
,
the
r
oles
of
the
af
or
em
entione
d
fa
ct
ors
in
devel
op
in
g
(
or
pr
even
ti
ng
)
per
c
ei
ve
d
depressi
on
is
i
m
per
at
ive
to
be
stu
died
in
or
de
r
t
o
pr
e
ve
nt
f
urt
her
neg
at
ive
even
ts
rel
at
ed
t
o
cy
ber
-
victi
m
i
zat
ion
and
de
pressi
on
.
ACKN
OWLE
DGE
MENTS
This
stu
dy
is
s
upporte
d
by
Int
ern
al
Re
searc
h
Gr
a
nt
Sc
hem
e
(I
R
GS)
f
ro
m
the
Re
searc
h
Ma
nag
em
ent
Ce
nter of
ELM
G
r
ad
uate Sc
hool,
HELP
U
niv
ersit
y,
Ku
al
a
Lum
pu
r
,
Mal
ay
sia
.
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NCE
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