Intern
ati
o
n
a
l
Jo
urn
a
l
o
f
E
v
al
ua
ti
o
n
and
Rese
arch in
Education (I
JE
RE)
V
o
l.4
,
No
.3
, Sep
t
em
b
e
r
20
15, pp
. 101
~105
I
S
SN
: 225
2-8
8
2
2
1
01
Jo
urn
a
l
h
o
me
pa
ge
: h
ttp
://iaesjo
u
r
na
l.com/
o
n
lin
e/ind
e
x.ph
p
/
IJERE
The Imp
a
ct of Vi
sual Imp
a
irm
e
nt on Perceived S
c
hool
Clim
at
e
Benjamin Sc
h
a
de
1
, Karen
H. Larwin
2
1
Department of School
Ps
y
c
ho
lo
g
y
,
Youngstown State Univ
ersity, USA
2
Department of Educ.
Founda
tio
ns & Research
,
Youngstown State Univ
ersity
, U
S
A
Article Info
A
B
STRAC
T
Article histo
r
y:
Received
J
u
l 14, 2015
Rev
i
sed
Au
g
20
2
015
Accepted Aug 27, 2015
The curren
t
inve
s
tigation ex
am
in
es
whether vis
u
a
l
im
pairm
e
nt has
an im
pact
on a student’s perception of the school c
limate. U
s
ing a large national sample
of high schoo
l s
t
udents, per
ceptions were
examined
for students
with vision
im
pairm
e
nt rel
a
tive to stud
ents
with no visual
im
pairm
e
nts. T
h
ree fa
ctors
were ex
amined: self-repor
ted
level of
happin
e
ss, perception
of
a positiv
e
school climate,
and negative
school affect. Results
revealed n
o
differen
ces
for the seeing
and visually
impaired
students on
self-re
ported happiness and
percep
tion of
a positiv
e sch
ool clim
a
t
e f
a
ctors, howev
er
signific
a
nt
differen
ces were found on the
negat
i
ve
school
affect factor
. Additional
l
y
,
gender w
a
s significan
tly
r
e
lated
to the neg
a
tiv
e school aff
e
ct f
acto
r
.
Keyword:
Low In
cid
e
n
c
e Disab
ility
Sch
ool
A
ffect
School Clim
ate
Vi
sual
Im
pai
r
m
e
nt
Copyright ©
201
5 Institut
e
o
f
Ad
vanced
Engin
eer
ing and S
c
i
e
nce.
All rights re
se
rve
d
.
Co
rresp
ond
i
ng
Autho
r
:
Kare
n H.
Lar
w
in,
Depa
rt
m
e
nt
of
Ed
uc.
Fo
u
ndat
i
ons
&
R
e
searc
h
,
Y
oun
g
s
to
wn
State U
n
iv
er
sity,
USA.
Em
a
il: k
h
l
arwi
n
@
ysu
.
ed
u
1.
INTRODUCTION
Th
e cu
rren
t inv
e
stig
ation
exa
m
in
es if stu
d
en
ts’
p
e
rcep
tion
of sch
o
o
l
climate is in
flu
e
n
ced
b
y
the
prese
n
ce of visual
im
pairm
e
nt.
Because
vis
u
al im
pair
m
e
nts
,
including full
and
partial vis
u
al im
pairm
e
nt, are
d
e
sign
ated
as lo
w in
ci
d
e
n
ce
d
i
sab
ilities, th
e frequ
en
cy o
f
th
e d
i
sab
ility
is
lo
w in
th
e scho
o
l
-ag
e
p
opu
lation.
As a low in
ci
d
e
n
ce
d
i
sab
ilit
y categ
o
r
y, it is rare th
at
reg
u
l
ar pub
lic sch
o
o
l
s ed
u
cate stu
d
e
n
t
s with v
i
su
al
i
m
pair
m
e
nts. Because the
incidence
of visual i
m
pair
m
e
nt
is low com
p
are
d
to ot
her
disa
bility categorie
s, such
as h
i
gh
i
n
cid
e
n
ce
d
i
sab
ilities, th
ere is a
p
a
u
c
ity o
f
research
co
n
c
ern
i
ng th
is catego
r
y
o
f
stud
en
ts
who
are
at
t
e
ndi
n
g
p
ubl
i
c
sch
o
o
l
s
.
Hu
ur
re,
Kom
u
l
a
i
n
en, an
d A
r
o [1]
f
o
u
n
d
t
h
a
t
si
ght
ed ad
ol
e
s
cent
s
an
d t
h
o
s
e wi
t
h
vi
sual
im
pai
r
m
e
nt
s
had
sim
i
lar levels o
f
sel
f-es
t
eem
as rep
o
r
t
ed by
sel
f
-
r
at
i
ngs o
n
que
st
i
o
n
n
ai
re su
rv
e
y
dat
a
.
F
u
rt
he
r,
t
h
e
researc
h
er
s f
o
un
d t
h
at
i
n
t
e
r
p
ers
o
nal
rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
ps we
re
st
ro
ng
pre
d
i
c
t
o
rs
of
sel
f-est
eem
for
bot
h
si
ght
e
d
adol
esce
nt
s a
n
d t
h
ose
wi
t
h
vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
s. Si
m
i
l
a
r researc
h
o
n
t
h
e i
m
port
a
nce
of
soci
al
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
f
o
r
st
ude
nt
s wi
t
h
vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
s was al
s
o
sup
p
o
rt
e
d
by
Kef
[2]
.
Li
t
v
a
c
k et
al
. [3]
p
o
si
t
t
h
at
st
ude
nt
s wi
t
h
d
i
sab
ilities b
e
nefit fro
m
in
terperson
a
l relation
s
h
i
p
s
wit
h
th
eir n
ond
isab
led
p
eers. Th
ese research
ers fou
n
d
th
at
n
ond
isab
led
p
e
ers v
i
ewed
stud
en
ts with
d
i
sab
ilities
m
o
re
fav
o
rab
l
y when
t
h
ey h
a
d
le
ss sev
e
re d
i
sab
ilitie
s, bu
t
learn
i
ng
abo
u
t
th
e stud
en
ts’
d
i
sab
ilities p
o
s
itiv
ely i
m
p
acted
th
eir
p
e
rcep
tion
s
o
f
tho
s
e st
ud
en
ts.
Lik
e
wise,
Hess [4
] fou
n
d
that stu
d
e
n
t
s wi
th
v
i
su
al i
m
p
a
irm
e
n
t
s wh
o
rep
o
rted
h
a
v
i
ng
a p
o
s
itiv
e
sch
ool
cl
im
at
e were l
e
ss l
i
k
el
y
t
o
feel
st
igm
a
ti
zed t
h
an
di
d t
h
ose w
h
o re
po
rt
ed
hav
i
ng a ne
gat
i
v
e
scho
ol
cli
m
ate. In
terestin
g
l
y, th
is stu
d
y
also
foun
d th
at
m
easu
r
es o
f
p
o
s
itiv
e scho
o
l
clim
a
t
e an
d
po
sitiv
e attit
u
d
e
s i
n
t
h
e sch
o
o
l
s
w
e
re hi
ghl
y
c
o
r
r
el
at
ed f
o
r
st
u
d
ent
s
a
n
d t
eac
hers
. T
hus
, f
o
r st
u
d
e
n
t
s
wi
t
h
vi
s
u
al
i
m
pairm
e
nt
s,
th
ere
was
no
si
g
n
i
fican
t so
cial b
a
rrier in
schoo
ls th
at
h
a
d
p
o
sitiv
e cli
m
ates.
To asse
ss sc
hool clim
ate
m
o
re specifically,
Hung, et
al. [5] researc
h
ed s
a
m
p
les of m
i
d
d
le sc
hool
stude
nts.
In thi
s
line of
research, t
h
ree
factors we
re asses
s
e
d
, i
n
cluding a
u
th
oritativ
e structu
r
e, stud
en
t
o
r
d
e
r,
an
d stud
en
t sup
port to
m
eas
u
r
e
stud
en
t em
o
t
io
n
a
l d
i
ffi
cu
lties, con
d
u
c
t
issu
es, and
peer v
i
ctim
iza
t
i
o
n. Th
e
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
I
J
ERE
Vo
l. 4
,
N
o
. 3
,
Sep
t
emb
e
r
201
5
:
1
01
–
10
5
10
2
researc
h
er
s f
o
un
d a
ne
gat
i
v
e rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
p
bet
w
ee
n a
u
t
h
o
r
i
t
a
t
i
v
e st
ruct
u
r
es a
nd
or
de
rl
i
n
ess
wi
t
h
em
ot
i
onal
d
i
fficu
lties, con
d
u
c
t issu
es, an
d
p
eer v
i
ctim
i
zatio
n
.
Th
u
s
, sch
o
o
l
s greater stru
cture and
ord
e
r h
a
d
fewer so
cial
an
d
em
o
tio
n
a
l issu
es rep
o
rted. Th
is lin
e o
f
research
su
p
p
o
r
ts h
o
w d
i
fferent sch
o
o
l
settin
gs can
in
fluen
c
e (for
bet
t
e
r
or
w
o
rse
)
s
o
ci
al
an
d em
ot
i
onal
o
u
t
c
om
es f
o
r
al
l
st
ude
nt
s.
2.
CU
R
R
ENT I
NVESTI
G
AT
ION
There is a paucity of researc
h
exam
ining the associ
at
i
on o
f
sch
ool
cl
im
ate wi
t
h
vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
.
In the
present
study, it woul
d be
expect
ed that th
e
d
a
ta wou
l
d
supp
ort th
e clai
m
th
at stud
en
ts with fu
ll
v
i
sion
p
e
rcei
v
e
a m
o
re po
sitiv
e scho
o
l
clim
ate, wh
ile stu
d
e
n
t
s
with
v
i
su
al imp
a
irm
e
n
t
p
e
rceiv
e
a m
o
re n
e
g
a
tiv
e
scho
o
l
clim
a
t
e. Th
e
g
o
a
l
o
f
t
h
e research
is to d
e
term
in
e th
e relatio
n
s
h
i
p
b
e
tween
these v
a
riab
les to
sup
p
o
r
t
or
rej
ect su
ch
clai
m
s
. Th
is is th
e first
kn
ow st
ud
y to
ex
am
in
e th
is relation
s
h
i
p
.
3.
R
E
SEARC
H M
ETHOD
3.
1. Par
t
i
c
i
p
a
n
ts
Part
i
c
i
p
ant
s
i
n
t
h
e st
udy
i
n
cl
u
d
ed st
ude
nt
s i
n
gra
d
es se
ven t
h
r
o
ug
h t
w
el
ve
du
ri
n
g
t
h
e aca
dem
i
c
y
ear
(
n
= 1,
21
8
)
. O
f
t
h
ose
pa
rt
i
c
i
p
ant
s
, o
n
l
y
1
1
r
e
sp
on
de
nt
s
i
d
en
tified
h
a
v
i
ng
v
i
su
al im
p
a
irmen
t
in th
e
samp
le of
dat
a
. F
o
r
pu
r
p
oses
of c
o
n
d
u
c
t
i
ng st
at
i
s
t
i
cal
anal
y
s
es, res
p
o
n
ses f
r
o
m
1,18
8 st
u
d
e
n
t
s
wer
e
used
. St
u
d
e
n
t
s
were
om
it
t
e
d i
f
t
h
ey
di
d not
a
n
s
w
er t
h
e
quest
i
ons
use
d
in
th
e an
alysis. Particip
an
t’s
resp
on
ses cam
e fro
m
a
n
a
tio
n
a
l
survey [6
], it is lik
ely th
at th
e
resu
lts are
re
presen
tativ
e of t
h
e tru
e
p
opu
latio
n
and
are g
e
n
e
ralizab
le.
Particip
an
ts i
n
clu
d
e
d
n
=
55
0 m
a
le an
d
n
=
63
8
fem
a
l
e
st
udent
s
.
Ta
bl
e 1
sum
m
ari
zes t
h
e n
u
m
b
ers o
f
st
ude
nt
s a
n
al
y
zed acc
or
di
n
g
t
o
gra
d
e l
e
vel
.
Tabl
e 1. N
u
m
b
er of st
u
d
ent
re
spo
n
d
e
n
t
s
by
g
r
ade
l
e
vel
Gr
ade
level
7 8 9
10
11
12
Nu
m
b
er
of
students
172
191
196
218
206
205
As s
h
ow
n i
n
Tabl
e
1,
t
h
ere
was
a
rel
a
t
i
v
el
y
bal
a
nce
d
di
st
ri
b
u
t
i
o
n
a
n
d
num
ber
o
f
resp
o
nde
nt
s
bet
w
ee
n t
h
e si
x
di
ffe
re
nt
g
r
a
d
e l
e
vel
s
.
Int
e
r
e
st
i
ngl
y
,
desc
ri
p
tiv
e statistics
rev
ealed
th
at
on
ly eigh
t respon
d
e
n
t
s
id
en
tified as
blin
d
.
Th
is i
n
clu
d
e
d
6
m
a
le respo
n
d
e
n
t
s and
2
fem
a
le resp
ond
en
ts. Th
us, to
attest to
t
h
e l
o
w
i
n
ci
denc
e
of
v
i
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
,
onl
y
0.
6
7
%
o
f
t
h
e
sam
p
l
e
i
n
cl
u
d
e
d
re
sp
on
de
nt
s
wh
o i
d
ent
i
f
i
e
d as
vi
sual
l
y
i
m
p
a
ired
(b
lind
)
.
3.
2. I
n
str
u
me
nta
t
i
o
n
Data were ob
t
a
in
ed
th
rou
g
h
th
e Natio
n
a
l Lo
ng
itud
i
n
a
l Stu
d
y
of Ad
o
l
escen
t Health
. Th
e statistica
l
analyses were
conducted
via the Statis
tical
Packa
g
e for t
h
e Social Sciences
(SPS
S)
. D
a
t
a
had t
o
be p
r
o
p
erl
y
code
d t
o
e
n
sure reliable statistical analyses were c
o
nd
u
c
ted
.
All d
a
ta
was cod
e
d
accord
i
n
g to
th
e sp
ecificatio
n
of t
h
e co
de
b
o
ok
f
o
r t
h
e Nat
i
onal
L
o
ngi
t
u
di
nal
St
u
d
y
o
f
A
dol
esce
nt
Heal
t
h
was c
o
ns
ul
t
e
d by
t
h
e resea
r
che
r
s.
Facto
r
s were co
m
p
u
t
ed
for the fo
llo
wi
n
g
v
a
riab
les:
h
a
pp
i
n
ess, po
sitiv
e
scho
o
l
clim
ate,
and
n
e
g
a
tive
scho
ol
affect
.
Va
ri
abl
e
s t
h
at
we
re
us
ed f
o
r t
h
e
ha
p
p
i
ness fact
or
i
n
c
l
ude
d:
j
u
st
as
g
o
o
d
as
ot
her
pe
opl
e,
h
o
p
ef
ul
a
b
o
u
t
th
e fu
tu
re,
h
a
pp
y, and
enj
o
yed
lif
e (
C
r
onb
ach
’
s
α
=
.930
). Variab
les th
at
were
u
s
ed
for th
e po
sitiv
e sch
o
o
l
clim
ate
factor i
n
cluded:
feel close to
pe
ople at school, feel
part
of your
sc
hool,
happy at your school, teachers
t
r
eat
st
ude
nt
s fai
r
l
y
, and
feel
safe i
n
y
o
u
r
scho
ol
(C
r
o
nba
ch’s
α
=
.
8
4
2
).
V
a
r
i
ab
le
s
th
at w
e
r
e
u
s
ed
for
th
e
negative
sc
hool affect
factor
include
d: trouble getting al
ong with teache
r
s,
trouble pay
i
ng attenti
o
n, t
r
ouble
get
t
i
ng h
o
m
e
wor
k
do
ne
,
a
nd t
r
o
ubl
e wi
t
h
ot
her st
u
d
ent
s
(
C
ro
nbac
h
’s
α
= .
870
)
.
To
con
d
u
c
t th
e ANO
VA
s,
the fact
ors
we
re analyzed t
o
determ
ine their relations
hips
with
three p
a
rt
icu
l
ar v
a
riab
les:
v
i
su
al
im
p
a
irm
e
n
t
,
bi
ol
o
g
i
cal
se
x,
and
g
r
a
d
e l
e
vel
.
G
r
a
d
e
poi
nt
a
v
era
g
e
(GPA)
was als
o
a
n
alyzed in the
ANOVA.
4.
R
E
SU
LTS AN
D ANA
LY
SIS
Dat
a
i
n
cl
udes
was
a m
i
xt
ur
e o
f
c
o
nt
i
n
u
o
u
s
(t
he
f
act
ors
)
a
n
d categori
cal (bi
o
logical sex,
visua
l
im
pai
r
m
e
nt
, g
r
ade l
e
vel
)
.
AN
O
VA
was
co
nsi
d
e
r
ed t
h
e m
o
st appropriate analys
is. Stro
ng
si
gn
ifican
t
co
rrelatio
n
s
do no
t ex
ist
b
e
tween
th
e th
ree facto
r
s,
ru
ling
ou
t a MANOVA an
alysis. All
n
ecessary cond
itio
ns
fo
r co
nd
uctin
g
an AN
O
VA
were m
e
t. ANOV
A re
vealed
that
visual im
pairm
e
nt was
significa
ntly
associated
with
th
e
stud
en
ts n
e
g
a
tiv
e sch
o
o
l
affect facto
r
,
F
(1
,11
7
0
)
= 43
.7
25
,
p
= .005
.
No
signif
i
can
t f
i
nd
ing
s
w
e
re
rev
ealed
fo
r the h
a
pp
in
ess or th
e po
sitiv
e sch
o
o
l
cli
m
ate fa
cto
r
. Fo
r th
e
neg
a
tiv
e schoo
l affect fact
o
r
,
F
(17,
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
The Im
p
a
ct
of
Vi
sual
I
m
p
a
i
r
ment
o
n
Percei
ved Sch
o
o
l
C
l
i
m
at
e
(
B
e
n
j
a
mi
n Sch
a
d
e)
10
3
1
170
)
=
2
.
69
6,
p
< .
0
0
1
. B
i
ol
ogi
cal
se
x was
al
so f
o
u
n
d
t
o
b
e
si
gni
fi
ca
nt
l
y
rel
a
t
e
d t
o
nega
t
i
v
e sch
ool
a
f
f
ect
,
F
(
1
, 117
0)
=
1
.
2
9
,
p
= .
0
45
.
Fi
g
u
re
1
de
m
onst
r
at
es ho
w t
h
e
ha
ppi
ne
ss di
f
f
ers
bet
w
een
bl
i
n
d m
a
l
e
s an
d
fem
a
les.
Fi
gu
re 1.
Di
f
f
e
r
ences
i
n
ha
ppi
ness bet
w
ee
n b
l
i
nd
m
a
l
e
s
and fem
a
l
e
s
As i
n
di
cat
ed i
n
Fi
g
u
r
e 1
,
si
ght
e
d
m
a
l
e
s and
fem
a
l
e
s appear t
o
ha
ve
nearl
y
t
h
e sa
m
e
l
e
vel
of
h
a
pp
in
ess,
wh
i
l
e b
lin
d
fem
a
le
s report a h
i
gher lev
e
l of h
a
pp
in
ess
relativ
e
to
th
e v
i
si
o
n
i
m
p
a
ired
m
a
les. Ju
st as
Fi
gu
re 1
dem
onst
r
at
ed t
h
e i
n
f
l
uence
of
bi
ol
o
g
i
cal
sex o
n
ha
ppi
ness f
o
r vi
s
i
on i
m
pai
r
ed i
ndi
vi
d
u
al
s, Fi
g
u
re
2
dem
onst
r
at
es
h
o
w
g
r
a
d
e l
e
vel
i
n
fl
ue
nces
ha
p
p
i
n
ess
f
o
r
vi
si
o
n
i
m
pai
r
ed i
n
di
vi
d
u
al
s.
Fi
gu
re 2.
Di
f
f
e
r
ences
i
n
ha
ppi
ness bet
w
ee
n g
r
ade
l
e
vel
s
As de
pi
ct
ed i
n
Fi
gu
re 2, si
gh
t
e
d st
ude
nt
s i
n
al
l
seconda
ry
gra
d
es ha
d si
m
i
l
a
r l
e
vel
s
of hap
p
i
n
es
s
.
Howe
ver, for vision im
paired st
udents,
ha
ppi
ness di
ffe
re
d for each
gr
ade level. Middle sc
hool stude
nts
(g
rade l
e
vel
s
7
and 8
)
, as wel
l
as hi
gh sch
o
o
l
seni
ors,
ap
p
e
ared
to
b
e
report lo
wer lev
e
ls
o
f
h
a
pp
in
ess
relativ
e
t
o
ot
her
hi
gh
s
c
ho
ol
st
ude
nt
s.
N
o
dat
a
we
re
avai
l
a
bl
e f
o
r
ni
nt
h
g
r
ade
st
u
d
e
n
t
s
.
The w
o
r
k
i
n
g h
y
pot
he
si
s fo
r t
h
e cu
rre
nt
i
nve
st
i
g
at
i
on i
s
t
h
a
t
t
h
ere i
s
a rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
p bet
w
e
e
n st
at
us o
f
vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
and
st
u
d
e
nt
s’
perce
p
t
i
ons
o
f
sc
h
ool
cl
im
at
e. AN
OV
A a
n
al
y
s
es
reveal
a
rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
p
bet
w
ee
n vi
s
u
a
l
im
pai
r
m
e
nt and
pe
rcei
ve
d sc
ho
ol
cl
i
m
at
e was si
g
n
i
f
i
cant
,
c
o
nfi
d
ence i
n
t
e
r
v
al
s wer
e
exam
ined. As
evide
n
ce by the above
dat
a
and t
h
e g
r
ap
hi
cal
depi
ct
i
o
n
s
,
i
t
i
s
cl
ear t
h
at
bot
h
gra
d
e l
e
vel
an
d
bi
ol
o
g
i
cal
se
x
m
a
y
m
oderat
e
t
h
e rel
a
t
i
o
ns
hi
p
bet
w
ee
n
vi
su
al
im
pai
r
m
e
nt
and
sc
ho
ol
cl
i
m
at
e.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
I
J
ERE
Vo
l. 4
,
N
o
. 3
,
Sep
t
emb
e
r
201
5
:
1
01
–
10
5
10
4
The o
b
ser
v
e
d
di
ffe
re
nces bet
w
een
gr
ou
ps (
m
al
e, fem
a
l
e
;
gra
d
e l
e
vel
s
;
n
o
t
vi
si
on i
m
pai
r
ed, vi
si
on
im
pai
r
ed) m
a
y
be i
m
pact
ed by
t
h
e l
i
m
i
t
e
d nu
m
b
er of i
n
di
vi
dual
s
i
n
t
h
e c
u
rre
nt
sam
p
l
e
i
d
ent
i
f
y
i
ng as
ha
vi
n
g
a
vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
. Ho
weve
r, beca
use t
h
e
t
h
ree fact
o
r
s appea
r
e
d
t
o
b
e
hi
ghl
y
co
rre
l
a
t
e
d, di
ff
ere
n
ces are
u
n
lik
ely to
b
e
fo
und
if factors
o
r
v
a
riab
les are o
m
it
ted
fro
m
fu
tu
re an
alyses.
5.
DIS
C
USSI
ON
The p
r
ese
n
t
st
u
d
y
fo
u
nd t
h
at
v
i
sual
im
pai
r
m
e
nt
do
es im
pact
st
ude
nt
s’
perce
p
t
i
o
n
s
of
ne
gat
i
v
e sch
ool
cli
m
ate. Po
ten
tial p
r
ob
lem
s
with
th
e st
ud
y in
clud
ed
a low sam
p
le size for respon
d
e
nts who
id
en
tifi
e
d
as
vision im
paired.
Because
only eight
pa
rticipants i
d
entifi
e
d as
vision i
m
paired, this
may have im
pacted the
effect sizes
and si
gnifica
nce
of relations
hi
ps bet
w
een va
riables a
n
d fact
ors.
Based
o
n
t
h
e an
alyses, it is difficu
lt to
d
r
aw con
c
ise resu
lts. Th
oug
h
t
h
ere is a g
e
n
e
ral
relatio
n
s
h
i
p
bet
w
ee
n t
h
e
fa
ct
ors a
n
d
vi
su
al
im
pai
r
m
e
nt
, t
h
ere
are
n
o
s
t
ro
ng
rel
a
t
i
o
ns
hi
ps
bet
w
een
i
ndi
vi
d
u
al
fact
o
r
s a
n
d
vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
, as
wel
l
as
i
ndi
vi
dual
fact
ors
wi
t
h
ot
her
vari
a
b
l
e
s.
Vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
i
s
a l
o
w i
n
ci
denc
e
d
i
sab
ility, so
small sa
m
p
le rep
r
esen
tatio
ns are
u
n
a
vo
id
ab
le [7
].
It is u
n
lik
ely th
at th
ere are alte
rnative expl
anations for the findi
ng
s pres
ented in t
h
e curre
nt study.
These
findings
are c
o
nsistent
with
rece
nt research s
u
g
g
es
t
i
ng t
h
at
w
h
e
n
vi
s
u
al
l
y
im
pai
r
ed st
ude
nt
s a
t
t
e
nd
pu
bl
i
c
sch
ool
,
t
h
ere are m
a
ny
addi
t
i
onal
c
h
a
l
l
e
nges f
o
r t
h
e
s
e st
ude
nt
s t
o
ove
rc
om
e [5]
,
[8]
.
These chal
l
e
nges
include
aca
de
mic challenges
as well as pee
r
and t
eacher pe
rceptions
a
n
d pre-e
x
isting
expectations.
Sin
ce th
e po
pulatio
n
o
f
v
i
su
al
ly i
m
p
a
ired
stud
en
ts attend
ing p
u
b
lic sch
o
o
l
s is g
r
o
w
i
n
g, the resu
lts o
f
th
is inv
e
stig
atio
n h
a
v
e
po
licy i
m
p
licatio
n
s
fo
r
bu
ild
ing
and
district adm
i
nistrators
in t
h
e l
o
cal sc
hool
districts.
Mechnism
m
u
st be i
n
place
for vis
u
ally im
paired
students
to
participate
fully in th
e e
d
uc
ational
opport
unity.
Beyo
nd
th
e “log
istics” o
f
scho
o
ling
,
ho
wever, th
e curren
t
study re
sults s
u
ggest that e
f
forts m
a
y be ne
eded t
o
ens
u
re t
h
at
t
h
e scho
ol
‘s e
m
braset
he soc
i
al
, em
ot
i
onal
,
and
psy
c
h
o
l
ogi
cal
nee
d
s
of al
l
st
ude
nt
s, an
d
specifically vis
u
ally im
paired students.
Wh
ile visua
lly impaire
d
st
ude
nts
re
port
ed no si
gni
ficant
diffe
reces
o
n
p
e
r
s
o
n
al aff
ect and school cu
ltu
r
e
q
u
e
sti
o
n
s
,
v
i
su
ally i
m
p
a
ir
ed
stud
en
ts en
dor
sed hig
h
e
r
o
n
so
m
e
of
th
e
n
e
g
a
tiv
e clim
a
t
e q
u
e
stio
n
s
.
Sp
eci
fically o
f
in
terest
i
s
t
h
e hi
gh
er e
n
do
rsem
ent
of
resp
o
n
ses i
ndi
cat
i
ng
di
ffe
re
nces
i
n
“get
t
i
ng al
o
n
g
wi
t
h
ot
he
r
st
u
d
e
nt
s”.
I
s
it possible that st
udents
who a
r
e
visually im
paired a
r
e
m
o
re vune
rabl
e t
o
bul
l
y
i
ng and
harassm
ent
fr
om
t
h
ei
r sam
e
-age
d pee
r
s
?
If t
h
ese st
u
d
e
n
t
s
are havi
n
g
a
m
o
re
di
ffi
c
u
l
t
t
i
m
e
get
t
i
ng al
on
g wi
t
h
peers
,
m
o
re cou
n
sel
i
n
g an
d
m
e
nt
ori
n
g m
a
y
b
e neede
d
f
o
r
t
h
ese i
ndi
vi
du
al
s so
th
at th
ey can
nav
i
g
a
te t
h
ese
person-related
difficu
lites as
well.
A m
a
jor fut
u
r
e
quest
i
o
n t
h
a
t
fai
l
e
d t
o
be add
r
esse
d by
t
h
e pr
esent
st
u
d
y
was h
o
w
g
r
ade
poi
nt
avera
g
e i
s
i
m
pact
ed by
vi
s
u
a
l
im
pai
r
m
e
nt
and
pe
rce
p
t
i
ons
of
sc
ho
ol
cl
i
m
at
e. Fut
u
re l
i
n
es
of
st
u
d
y
s
h
o
u
l
d
address this
question, as we
ll as r
eaddress
the data in the curre
nt stud
y. Because t
h
e curre
nt dat
a
were
sur
v
ey
ed
d
u
ri
ng
t
h
e
fi
rst
w
a
ve
of t
h
e
[6]
dat
a
c
o
l
l
ect
i
on,
per
h
a
p
s a
p
r
i
m
ary
dat
a
col
l
ect
i
on ca
n
sup
p
o
rt
d
i
fferen
t
find
i
n
g
s
du
e to
t
h
e cu
rren
t sup
port for in
cl
u
s
ion for stud
en
ts with
d
i
sab
ilitie
s in
g
e
n
e
ral edu
catio
n
settin
g
s
[9
].
Ho
wev
e
r, th
e cu
rren
t sam
p
le o
f
v
i
sually
i
m
p
a
ired
stud
en
ts allatten
d
e
d
pu
b
lic sch
o
o
l
.
Th
ese
st
ude
nt
s at
t
e
n
d
a
nce o
f
a
pu
bl
i
c
scho
ol
m
a
y
have i
m
pact
ed
t
h
e l
ack
of si
gni
fi
cant
fi
ndi
ngs
[
2
]
,
[
3
]
.
A
not
her
fut
u
re l
i
n
e
of
r
e
search c
o
ul
d
exam
i
n
e i
f
di
ff
eri
n
g l
e
vel
s
of
severi
t
y
o
f
vi
s
u
al
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt, i
n
cl
u
d
i
n
g a r
a
nge
o
f
v
i
su
al im
p
a
irmen
t
to
co
m
p
l
e
te v
i
su
al im
p
a
irm
e
n
t
,
m
o
d
e
rates wh
at st
ud
en
ts rep
o
rt ab
ou
t th
ei
r ex
perien
ces.
The p
r
ese
n
t
st
udy
onl
y
i
n
cl
u
d
ed sel
f
-
r
ep
ort
s
of t
h
e
pre
s
en
ce of
vi
sual
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
, but
not
se
veri
t
y
. P
e
rha
p
s
severi
t
y
o
f
vi
s
u
al
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt i
n
fl
uences
t
h
e
rel
a
t
i
ons
hi
p
be
t
w
een
vi
s
u
al
i
m
pai
r
m
e
nt
and
sch
o
o
l
cl
im
at
e.
6.
CO
NCL
USI
O
N
Th
e cu
rren
t inv
e
stig
ation
add
s
to th
e
p
a
u
c
ity o
f
re
se
arc
h
on the
experi
ences
of vis
u
a
lly im
paired
st
ude
nt
s i
n
pu
bl
i
c
educ
at
i
o
n
.
R
e
sul
t
s
are co
nsi
s
t
e
nt
wi
t
h
o
t
her rece
nt
res
earch
, h
o
w
eve
r
, t
h
e
o
u
t
c
om
e of t
h
i
s
in
v
e
stig
ation
su
gg
est po
ten
tial
p
s
ycho
-so
c
ial
issu
esm
a
y
exi
s
t
fo
r st
ude
nt
s
wh
o a
r
e
vi
sual
ly im
paired that are
n
o
t
b
e
ing
repo
rted
b
y
sam
e
-ag
e
d
p
eers. In
add
ition
to
th
e n
e
g
a
tiv
e affect
d
i
ffere
nces rev
ealed
,
visu
ally
im
pai
r
ed m
a
l
e
st
ude
nt
s r
e
p
o
rt
ed l
o
wer
l
e
vel
s
of
ha
p
p
i
n
es
s relativ
e to
v
i
su
ally i
m
p
a
ired
females. Th
e
find
ing
s
of t
h
e c
u
rrent
investigation s
u
ggest that a
s
a greate
r
num
b
e
rs of
v
i
su
all
y
i
m
p
a
ired
stud
en
ts enro
ll in pu
b
lic
sch
ool
s, m
o
re
sch
ool
p
s
y
c
h
o
l
ogi
st
s are
nee
d
ed
. A
d
di
t
i
ona
l
l
y
, t
h
ese resul
t
s rei
n
f
o
rce t
h
e t
h
eri
s
i
n
g nee
d
f
o
r
scho
o
l
p
s
ycho
l
o
g
i
st and
schoo
l coun
selors,
as well as trai
n
e
d ad
m
i
n
i
strato
rs, activ
ely in
vo
lv
ed in
h
e
l
p
ing
stu
d
e
n
t
s with
v
i
su
al im
p
a
ir
men
t
s to
h
a
v
e
p
o
s
itiv
e schoo
l ex
p
e
rien
ces. Wh
ile th
e cu
rren
t inv
e
stig
atio
n
was
base
d o
n
a
l
i
m
i
t
e
d n
u
m
b
er o
f
st
ude
nt
s i
d
ent
i
fi
ed as
vi
su
all
y
i
m
p
a
ired
, t
h
e sm
al
l sa
m
p
le
is rep
r
esen
tativ
e
o
f
t
h
e p
r
op
ort
i
o
n
of
vi
s
u
al
l
y
im
pai
r
ed st
ude
nt
s
f
o
u
n
d
i
n
p
u
b
l
i
c
sch
ool
s.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
The Im
p
a
ct
of
Vi
sual
I
m
p
a
i
r
ment
o
n
Percei
ved Sch
o
o
l
C
l
i
m
at
e
(
B
e
n
j
a
mi
n Sch
a
d
e)
10
5
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NC
ES
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Komulainen, EJ
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l support
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i
sual
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k, MS.
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age-
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ents’
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ies and o
f
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bili
ties
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, PD., “Measuring school c
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ate: Factor
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l Mental Health
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8.
BIOGRAP
HI
ES OF
AUTH
ORS
Benjamin Schad
e
, M.Ed
. earn
e
d his B.A. in ps
y
c
holog
y
from Lo
ck Haven University
and his
M.Ed. in in
terv
ention services
from Youngsto
wn State University
, where h
e
is currently
stud
y
i
ng school psy
c
holog
y
.
H
i
s research in
te
rests include school climate, b
u
lly
i
ng and
c
y
b
e
rbul
l
y
ing,
a
nd im
proving outcom
e
s for student
s with disa
bilit
ies. He serv
es on several
committees for the Colleg
e
of Graduate Studies
at YSU and is
Vice President
of the school
ps
y
c
holog
y
stud
ent
org
a
nization.
Karen Larwin, PhD. acquired her Ph.D. f
r
om
Kent
S
t
at
e Univers
i
t
y
i
n
Evaluat
i
on,
Measurement, and
Statisti
cs in 2
007. She cu
rrently
serves as
a pr
ofessor at Youn
gstown State
Universit
y
. Dr.
Larwin has par
t
i
c
ipa
t
ed as th
e
ev
alua
tor on m
u
lti
ple fed
e
ral
and s
t
at
ewide gran
t
supported projec
ts over the past
decad
e. Her pri
m
a
r
y
te
ach
ing focus is in the ar
ea of resear
ch
methods, quantitativ
e methods, eval
uation, and measurement.
S
h
e
is curr
ently
a Chair for
the
American
Evalu
a
tion
Associatio
n’s Quantit
ativ
e
Methods: Th
eor
y
and D
e
sign TI
G.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.