Intern
ati
o
n
a
l
Jo
urn
a
l
o
f
E
v
al
ua
ti
o
n
and
Rese
arch in
Education (I
JE
RE)
Vol
.
3,
N
o
.
4
,
D
ecem
b
er 20
1
4
, pp
. 21
1~
21
7
I
S
SN
: 225
2-8
8
2
2
2
11
Jo
urn
a
l
h
o
me
pa
ge
: h
ttp
://iaesjo
u
r
na
l.com/
o
n
lin
e/ind
e
x.ph
p
/
IJERE
Public Perception of the Mille
nnium Development Goals on
Access to Safe Drinking Water
in Cros
s River St
at
e, Nigeri
a
Dav
i
d
D. Eni,
Willia
m M. Ojo
n
g
Department o
f
G
e
ograph
y
and
En
vironmenta
l Sc
i
e
nc
e
,
Uni
v
e
r
sity
of Ca
la
ba
r,
Calab
a
r -
Nigeria
Article Info
A
B
STRAC
T
Article histo
r
y:
Received Sept 9, 2014
Rev
i
sed
O
c
t 20
, 20
14
Accepted Nov 26, 2014
This stud
y
eval
uated th
e publ
i
c
perc
eption of
Millennium
Developm
en
t
Goals (MDGs) o
f
environmental
sustaina
bil
i
t
y
wi
th focus on
the
MDG targe
t
which has do with reducing th
e
proporti
on of people without access to safe
drinking wat
e
r i
n
Cros
s
River S
t
at
e, Nige
ria
.
T
h
e s
t
rat
i
fied
and
s
y
s
t
em
ati
c
sampling techniques were ado
p
ted fo
r the stud
y
,
considerin
g a stud
y
population of 2,892,988 with a sample
size of 1260 respondents. The data
was
anal
y
s
ed
us
ing t-tes
t
an
al
y
s
is
for s
i
ngle m
ean at .05
levels
of
signific
a
nce
.
Th
e result obta
i
ned
from
the Cronbach Alpha re
liab
ilit
y of th
e
ins
t
rum
e
nt was
.67, whil
e th
e
m
ean (
x
) and standard deviation
were 20.9
8
and 3.73 r
e
spectively
.
Th
e instrument
measure what it was d
e
signed to
m
easure in the stud
y. The resul
t
show
ed a significant but positiv
e
t-value of
12.21. Th
e calcu
l
ated t-test of 12
.2 wa
s found to be significantly
greater than
the cri
tical t-v
a
l
u
e obtain
e
d in t
h
e result; i
t
im
plies that respondents hav
e
adequate per
cep
tion of MDGs
of envir
onmental sustainability
in terms of
access to safe drinking water
.
The pe
rception of MDGs of en
vironmental
susta
i
na
bility
was signifi
can
tl
y h
i
gh. It was
r
ecom
m
ended that
env
i
ronm
ental
sustainability
issues
s
hould be given
priority
and in
cluded
in
the schoo
l
curricu
lum at all lev
e
ls of edu
cati
on
s
y
stem. Secondly
,
the Cross
River
Government should embark on
water sc
hemes
across the State to provide
portable and
af
fordable water
in the State
as it h
a
s done in Calabar
Metropolis ther
eb
y
meeting
th
e MDG target, to halv
e, b
y
2015, the
proportion of
pe
ople wi
thout sus
t
ain
a
bl
e
a
ccess
t
o
safe
drinking
water.
Keyword:
Dri
nki
ng
M
GDs
Percep
tio
n
Safe
Water
Copyright ©
201
4 Institut
e
o
f
Ad
vanced
Engin
eer
ing and S
c
i
e
nce.
All rights re
se
rve
d
.
Co
rresp
ond
i
ng
Autho
r
:
W
illiam
M. Ojo
n
g
,
Depa
rt
m
e
nt
of
Geo
g
r
ap
hy
a
n
d
En
vi
r
onm
ent
a
l
Sci
e
nce,
Un
i
v
ersity of
Calab
a
r, Calabar - Ni
g
e
ria.
Em
a
il: o
j
b
ill2
02
0@yahoo
.com
1.
INTRODUCTION
Water is a co
lo
urless, odo
url
e
ss an
d
tasteless liq
u
i
d
wh
ich
falls fro
m
th
e at
m
o
sp
h
e
re as rain
, fo
und
unde
rground
beneath the ea
rt
h surface a
n
d
also found in
pools of m
a
ss
as
oceans, ri
ve
rs, stream
s, lakes and
creeks
.
It is a
substance
required
by all form
s of life
on
earth
for s
u
rvival.
Water ca
n also be
prese
n
ted i
n
three states suc
h
as solid, liquid and
gaseous
states. E
ze and A
bua (
2
00
3
)
defi
ne
d wat
e
r
sup
p
l
y
as wat
e
r t
h
at
i
s
avai
l
a
bl
e fo
r
use fr
om
vari
ous s
o
urces
. It
ran
g
es f
r
om
rain
water
h
a
rvestin
g
,
to
larg
e scale co
n
s
tru
c
tio
n
of
reser
v
oi
rs f
o
r t
h
e p
u
r
p
ose o
f
m
a
ki
ng
wat
e
r
avai
l
a
bl
e t
o
m
e
m
b
ers o
f
t
h
e
pu
bl
i
c
[1]
.
We
have
dom
est
i
c
wat
e
r,
i
n
d
u
st
ri
al
an
d i
rri
gat
i
o
n wat
e
r su
ppl
y
.
Dom
e
st
i
c
wat
e
r su
ppl
y
i
s
seri
o
u
s
l
y
affect
ed by
po
pul
at
i
o
n w
h
ereas
in
du
strial water supp
ly is a fun
c
tio
n
of techno
log
y
and
lev
e
l o
f
indu
strializatio
n
.
Cities and
town
s li
k
e
Lag
o
s,
Kan
o
,
P
o
rt
H
a
rco
u
rt
an
d
E
n
u
g
u
ha
ve
ver
y
hi
g
h
i
n
d
u
st
r
i
al
wat
e
r
dem
a
nd
t
h
a
n
t
o
w
n
s l
i
k
e
Ik
om
, Og
o
j
a
,
C
a
l
a
bar, Uy
o
,
M
a
ku
rdi
a
n
d
J
a
l
i
ngo
.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
IJERE
Vol. 3, No. 4,
Decem
ber 2014 :
211 –
217
21
2
The i
m
port
a
nc
e of
wat
e
r t
o
h
u
m
a
n bei
ngs c
a
nn
ot
be
ove
r em
phasi
zed
, i
t
i
s
appr
o
p
ri
at
e t
h
e st
at
e t
h
at
with
ou
t water h
u
m
an
s will
defin
itely
b
e
unab
l
e
to
ex
ist
on
earth
.
Th
is is b
ecau
s
e
of the card
i
n
a
l im
p
o
r
tan
ce
of
t
h
e
com
m
odi
t
y
.
W
a
t
e
r i
s
us
ed
fo
r a
wi
de
v
a
ri
et
y
of
p
u
r
p
o
s
es s
u
ch
as
d
r
i
nki
ng
,
bat
h
i
n
g
,
was
h
i
n
g,
cl
ea
ni
n
g
,
cooking, irriga
tion, and so
on. To Eni (1998) water is an essential co
m
ponent of life, dom
e
stically
it
is
use
d
fo
r
dri
n
ki
n
g
,
c
o
o
k
i
n
g,
wat
e
ri
ng
o
f
gar
d
a
n
s,
am
ong
ot
her
pri
m
ary
fu
nct
i
ons
[
2
]
.
T
o
E
ze an
d
Ab
ua
(
2
0
0
3
)
wat
e
r i
s
t
h
e
ba
si
s o
f
l
i
f
e
an
d
t
h
eref
o
r
e t
h
e
d
e
vel
o
pm
ent
of
wat
e
r
res
o
u
r
ce
s i
s
a
n
i
m
port
a
nt
c
o
m
pone
nt
i
n
t
h
e
integrate
d
de
velopm
ent of an area [1
].
A
ccor
d
in
g
to
Biso
ng
(2
001
)
w
a
ter
for
use in t
h
e hom
es, industry and
th
e h
ydro-electricity g
e
n
e
ratio
n
is ob
tain
ed fro
m
th
e ru
ral areas [3
]. Availab
ility
o
f
water in
th
e form an
d
qua
ntity required
has m
a
de it necessa
ry for
som
e
indust
r
ie
s to
be l
o
cated in the
rural areas. Sim
ilarly,
bot
h
pl
ant
s
a
n
d a
n
i
m
al
s depe
nd
o
n
wat
e
r
fo
r s
u
r
v
i
v
al
.
It is also
i
m
p
o
rtan
t to
m
e
n
tio
n
th
at n
a
ture h
a
s d
e
lin
eated
water fro
m
lan
d
clearly. Water cov
e
rs
betwee
n
65 to 70
per ce
nt of the
ear
t
h
s
u
rface.
All anim
als require
wat
e
r,
but s
p
ecies va
ry greatly in the
i
r
need
f
o
r
dri
n
k
i
ng
wat
e
r.
Wa
t
e
r i
s
neede
d
f
o
r
dri
nki
ng a
n
d bat
h
i
n
g. S
o
m
e
anim
al
s like K
o
bus
K
o
b
,
wat
e
r
b
u
c
k
,
bu
sh
buck
and
r
eedbuck
dr
ink
a lo
t
o
f
w
a
ter
and
ar
e of
ten
f
oun
d
n
ear
a
w
a
ter
po
o
l
[
4
]. C
h
ir
as (
199
4)
stated that water covers a
b
out 70 pe
r cent of the Eart
h’s s
u
rface and com
p
rising two-thirds or m
o
re of t
h
e
wei
g
ht
o
f
m
o
st ani
m
al
s and
u
p
t
o
95
pe
r cen
t
of t
h
e
wei
g
ht
of
pl
ant
s
[5]
.
Wat
e
r, t
hus i
s
i
ndi
s
p
ensa
bl
e t
o
l
i
f
e.
Desp
ite its crucial ro
le in ou
r liv
es,
water is
o
n
e
of th
e m
o
st b
a
d
l
y ab
used
r
e
sour
ces.
W
a
t
e
r
is
o
n
e
of
th
e m
o
st
im
port
a
nt
reso
urces
o
f
t
h
e ea
rt
h.
It
ha
s a cri
t
i
cal
funct
i
o
n i
n
al
l
sp
here
s o
f
l
i
f
e.
Ade
q
uat
e
wat
e
r i
s
nee
d
ed
f
o
r
dri
nki
ng
, pers
o
n
al
hy
gi
ene an
d ot
he
r dom
esti
c
pu
r
pose
s
. It
i
s
nee
d
ed
f
o
r
i
ndi
vi
d
u
al
, pu
bl
i
c
,
com
m
erci
al
an
d
agri
c
u
l
t
u
ral
p
u
r
p
o
ses. T
h
e de
m
a
nd fo
r wat
e
r fo
r t
h
ese p
u
r
pos
es has co
ns
eque
nt
l
y
l
e
d t
o
a cl
ose rel
a
t
i
o
nshi
p
b
e
tween
water av
ailab
ility an
d econo
m
i
c
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
en
t
o
f
a n
a
tion
.
Water
resources are m
a
n
y
an
d th
e
pu
r
poses
f
o
r t
h
ei
r
devel
opm
ent
are al
s
o
m
a
ny
. O
n
a
gl
obal scale, the
r
e are se
ven m
a
jor s
o
urces
of water
whi
c
h i
n
cl
ude
atm
o
sp
heri
c
wat
e
r,
su
rface
wat
e
r
,
gr
ou
n
d
wat
e
r,
re
fri
gerat
e
d
wat
e
r,
bi
ol
ogi
cal
wa
t
e
r a
n
d
veget
a
t
i
o
n wat
e
r
[
6
]
.
Fro
m
th
e fo
rego
ing
,
th
ere is n
o
th
oug
h
t
th
at water is fou
n
d
ev
ery
w
h
e
re, bu
t th
e q
u
a
lity an
d
q
u
a
n
tity
req
u
i
r
e
d
f
o
r u
s
e by
eac
h i
n
d
i
vi
dual
vari
es
fr
om
count
ry
t
o
co
u
n
t
r
y
,
de
p
e
ndi
ng
o
n
t
h
e
pri
o
ri
t
y
at
t
ached by
th
eir d
i
fferen
t g
o
v
e
rn
m
e
n
t
in
mak
i
n
g
water av
ailab
l
e for use. For in
stan
ce, in
Great Britain
, Un
ited
States o
f
Am
erica, Ru
ssia an
d
o
t
h
e
r adv
a
n
ce cou
n
t
ries g
o
v
e
rn
m
e
n
t
mak
e
s p
r
ov
ision
fo
r ab
ou
t 100
litres p
e
r
d
a
y in
lin
e
with
th
e
req
u
i
red
stand
a
rd
.
Bu
t in
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
i
ng
co
un
tr
ies o
f
Asia, and
Sub
-
Sah
a
ran
African
, av
ailab
ility o
f
water i
n
term
s o
f
qu
ality an
d
q
u
a
n
tity is estimated
3
0
litres is m
a
d
e
av
ailab
l
e fo
r ind
i
v
i
du
als per
d
a
y.
Water i
s
one
of t
h
e m
o
st
im
port
a
nt
resou
r
ces o
f
t
h
e
eart
h
. It
has a cri
t
i
cal funct
i
on i
n
al
l
sphe
r
e
s of l
i
f
e. Ade
quat
e
wat
e
r i
s
nee
d
e
d
f
o
r d
r
i
n
ki
n
g
,
pe
rs
onal
hy
g
i
ene an
d
ot
he
r
d
o
m
e
st
i
c
pur
pos
es.
It
i
s
ne
eded
f
o
r
i
n
di
v
i
dual
,
pu
bl
i
c
, com
m
erci
al
and ag
ri
cul
t
u
ral
p
u
r
p
ose
s
. The dem
a
nd
for w
a
t
e
r fo
r t
h
ese p
u
r
p
oses
has co
nse
que
nt
l
y
l
e
d
to
a close relati
o
n
s
h
i
p
b
e
tw
een
w
a
ter av
ailabilit
y an
d
economic d
e
v
e
lop
m
en
t of a n
a
tion
.
W
a
ter resou
r
ces are
many and the
purposes
for t
h
e
i
r de
velopm
ent are als
o
m
a
ny [6].
The w
o
rl
d i
s
o
n
t
r
ac
k t
o
m
e
et
t
h
e dri
nki
ng
wat
e
r t
a
r
g
et
, t
h
o
u
gh m
a
ny
rem
a
i
n
t
o
be d
one i
n
som
e
regi
ons
. Accel
erated and targeted efforts a
r
e nee
d
ed t
o
bring drinking water to all rural house
h
olds
. Safe
wat
e
r s
u
p
p
l
y
r
e
m
a
i
n
s a chal
l
e
nge i
n
m
a
ny
part
s
of t
h
e
w
o
rl
d [
7
]
.
Ji
m
e
nez an
d Pere
z-F
o
g
u
e
n
t
(
2
0
1
0
)
,
not
e
d
that the UN
water confe
r
enc
e
held i
n
Mar
del Plata,
Argen
tin
a in
19
77 p
r
op
o
s
ed
t
h
e
p
e
r
i
o
d
19
81
- 19
90
as
th
e In
tern
ational
W
a
ter Su
pp
l
y
an
d San
itatio
n
Decad
e
,
with
th
e aim
o
f
d
e
l
i
v
e
ring
water – related serv
ices fo
r
1
0
0
p
e
r
cen
t
of
th
e wor
l
d
’
s
p
opu
latio
n [8
]. Ev
en
t
h
o
ugh tar
g
ets w
e
r
e
n
o
t
ach
iev
e
d,
w
a
ter
and
sanitatio
n
ap
p
e
ared
for the first tim
e as a to
p
p
r
iority in
th
e
devel
o
p
m
ent
age
nda
.
The m
a
i
n
co
nc
ern
was
t
a
ke
n
up
o
n
c
e
m
o
re duri
ng t
h
e l
a
st
deca
de.
The M
D
Gs i
n
cl
ude a s
p
eci
fi
c t
a
rget
t
o
c
u
t
i
n
hal
f
, by
20
15 t
h
e p
r
op
ort
i
on
o
f
people that
lack access
to
wa
t
e
r a
n
d sanitation se
rvices
.
Water su
pp
ly situ
atio
n
an
alysi
s
as sp
elt o
u
t
i
n
th
e CR-
SEED
S,
(
200
5-2
007
)
sho
w
th
at
go
v
e
rn
m
e
n
t
i
s
aware t
h
at
co
n
t
am
i
n
at
i
on fr
o
m
m
a
ny
sourc
e
p
o
ses a
heal
t
h
c
h
al
l
e
nge
t
o
t
hose
w
h
o
de
p
e
nd
o
n
s
u
c
h
w
a
t
e
r t
o
m
eet
t
h
ei
r needs (
d
ri
n
k
i
n
g,
b
a
t
h
i
ng a
n
d co
o
k
i
n
g)
. I
n
t
a
ke
of contam
inated water e
x
poses
users t
o
wate
r borne
di
seases l
i
k
e
d
y
s
ent
e
ry
, t
y
ph
oi
d, c
h
ol
era, diarrhoea,
etc
.
Gove
rnm
e
nt
ha
s estab
lish
e
d
th
e Cross Riv
e
r Rural
Water Supp
ly an
d
San
itatio
n
Ag
en
cy (RUWATSSA), wh
ic
h alongside
other agencies like the United Nations
Devel
opm
ent
Pro
g
r
am
m
e
(U
ND
P), Eu
r
ope
an
U
n
i
o
n (EU
)
, Worl
d
B
a
n
k
, and N
o
n
-
go
ver
n
m
e
nt
al
orga
ni
zat
i
o
n
(N
GO
s) a
r
e re
spo
n
si
ble f
o
r
pr
o
v
idin
g
water in
ru
ral are
a
s u
nde
r the
m
i
ni-han
d
pu
m
p
water sche
m
e
s. Al
l
l
o
cal
g
ove
rnm
e
nt
co
u
n
ci
l
he
adq
u
a
r
t
e
rs,
u
r
ban
an
d m
i
ni
-ur
b
a
n
cent
r
es
are ser
v
e
d
t
h
r
o
u
g
h
u
r
ban
an
d sem
i
ur
ba
n wat
e
r
su
ppl
y
sc
hem
e
s. These
ur
ba
n w
a
t
e
r schem
e
s com
b
i
n
ed
have
m
a
de i
t
possi
bl
e fo
r g
o
v
er
nm
ent
t
o
su
pp
ly
o
r
pr
ov
i
d
e saf
e
w
a
ter
t
o
ab
ou
t
4
5
p
e
r
cen
t of
t
h
e
p
opu
latio
n
of
th
e State.
In the last
five
deca
des i
n
C
r
oss Ri
ver State, th
ere
were fun
c
tio
n
a
l
W
a
ter wo
rk
s
statio
n
s
lo
cated in
som
e
of t
h
e u
r
ban t
o
w
n
s
of
C
a
l
a
bar,
Uge
p
,
Ik
om
, Ogo
j
a a
nd
O
b
u
d
u
p
r
o
v
i
di
ng
wat
e
r t
o
m
eet
t
h
e wat
e
r need
s
of
citizens of t
h
ese
urba
n towns
.
As tim
e
passes
by, t
h
is
urba
n i
n
frastructuregraduall
y becam
e deteriorate
d
,
o
b
s
o
l
ete and
mal-
f
u
n
c
ti
o
n
a
l
d
u
e
t
o
lack o
f
m
a
in
ten
a
n
ce and
f
undin
g
.
Th
e
w
a
t
e
r
supp
ly situ
atio
n
meta
m
o
rp
ho
sed
in
to
co
m
p
letely d
i
fferen
t
strateg
y
su
ch
as th
e in
tro
d
u
c
ti
o
n
o
f
pub
lic stan
dp
ip
es b
o
re
h
o
l
es,
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Public Percept
i
on
of The
Millenni
um
Devel
opme
nt
Goals
on Access to Saf
e
Dri
n
king .... (Davi
d
D.
Eni)
21
3
h
a
nd
pu
m
p
s an
d
h
a
nd
dug
wells wh
ich
were gro
ssly in
ad
equ
a
te. Due to
th
e in
ad
eq
u
acy of th
ese water
facilities,
th
ere
were
lon
g
qu
eu
es for water wh
ere
th
es
e facilities are fo
un
d. Th
e
p
r
o
b
l
em
affected
th
e water
and sa
ni
t
a
t
i
on
st
at
us of t
h
e S
t
at
e, as
m
o
st
h
ous
eh
ol
ds a
r
o
u
n
d
Whi
t
e
Ho
use St
reet
, i
n
C
a
l
a
bar So
ut
h
Local
Go
ve
rnm
e
nt
A
r
ea d
o
not
hav
e
fu
nct
i
o
nal
w
a
t
e
r cl
oset
t
o
i
l
e
t
s
. C
o
n
s
eq
ue
n
t
l
y
, resi
dent
s a
r
o
u
nd s
o
m
e
of
t
h
ese
n
e
g
l
ected
ar
eas p
a
ss hu
m
a
n
ex
cr
eta ind
i
scri
m
i
n
a
telyw
ith
i
n
th
e n
e
i
g
hbou
rho
o
d
.
W
h
ile in
th
e r
u
r
a
l ar
eas of
C
r
oss
R
i
ver
St
at
e, t
h
ey
depe
nd
s
o
l
e
l
y
on
p
o
l
l
u
t
e
d
rai
n
wa
ter, stream
s an
d
river
s
f
o
r the
i
r water
needs
.
W
i
t
h
reg
a
rds to to
ilet facilities, th
e
p
r
edo
m
in
an
t to
ilet typ
e
s are
p
it an
d bu
sh
syst
e
m
s.
A
relativ
ely h
i
g
h
pro
p
o
r
tion
o
f
th
e
po
pu
latio
n in
Calab
a
r
Mu
n
i
cip
a
lity en
jo
ys
po
rtab
le p
i
p
e
b
o
rn
e
water
roun
d the clo
c
k
,
m
a
k
i
ng
it
p
e
rh
aps the on
ly city
in
th
e co
un
try
ou
tsid
e
Abuj
a
where s
u
ch e
x
ist. Thi
s
water sch
e
m
e
is cu
rren
tly b
e
ing
ex
tend
ed
t
h
rou
g
h t
h
e assistance
of t
h
e
World Bank a
n
d
Africa
n
Dev
e
l
o
p
m
en
t Ban
k
to
cov
e
r so
m
e
o
t
h
e
r k
e
y u
r
b
a
n
cities i
n
clud
ing
Og
oja, Iko
m
, an
d
Ob
udu
and
its e
n
v
i
ron
s
.
The
go
ve
rnm
e
nt
o
f
C
r
oss R
i
ver
St
at
e i
s
l
o
o
k
i
n
g at
t
h
e
f
u
t
u
re a
n
d e
vol
vi
ng
an em
ergi
n
g
st
r
o
ng
ser
v
i
ce dri
v
e
n
eco
no
m
y
in
th
e state. He h
a
s
id
en
tified
st
rateg
i
c in
v
e
stm
e
n
t
s th
at will co
nso
lid
ate th
e
b
r
an
d
i
n
g
of th
e state as
a d
e
stin
atio
n
[9
]. Accord
i
n
g
to
Etowa (2
005
) th
e Africa Dev
e
lop
m
en
t Ban
k
(ADB) in
Oct
o
ber 19
92
ap
pro
v
e
d
a lo
an
p
a
ck
ag
e in
t
h
e su
m
to
tal o
f
$1
16
m
ill
io
n to
th
e Fed
e
ral
Gov
e
rn
m
e
n
t
of Nigeria fo
r
on
ward
l
e
ndi
n
g
t
o
t
h
e
C
r
oss R
i
ver
St
at
e Gove
rn
m
e
nt
[10]
. Th
i
s
l
o
an was f
o
r t
h
e fi
n
a
nci
ng
of t
h
e en
g
i
neeri
n
g
com
pone
nts,that is physical
devel
opm
ent of wate
r supply facilities
at
Uge
p
, Edi
b
a, Usum
utong, Mkpa
ni,
Eko
r
i an
d Ad
i
m
an
d
th
e i
n
stitu
tio
n
a
l
d
e
v
e
lop
m
en
t o
f
t
h
e co
m
p
an
y.
In s
p
ite of all the assertions
made about wa
ter
and the da
unting c
h
allenges associated with accessing
good quality
water, m
o
st people in Cross
River State,
Nigeria do not perceive
the problem because
in one
way or t
h
e other they can m
e
et their water
needs. Sec
o
ndl
y
, they are not
aware
of
th
e
p
r
ov
isio
ns of MDGs
with rega
rds to access to safe drinking wate
r as a
m
a
jo
r variable for the study. It is aga
i
nst this background
th
at th
is research
seek
s to
ev
alu
a
te th
e p
e
rcep
tio
n
o
f
MDGs o
f
env
i
ron
m
en
tal su
stain
a
b
ilit
y in
l
i
n
e
with
water
availability and accessi
bility, water qua
lity and qua
n
tity which a
r
e c
r
itical.
2.
MATE
RIAL
S AND METHODS
The population
of
the
study c
onsists
of all residents
of
Cross River State.
The
population accordi
ng
t
o
Nat
i
o
nal
P
o
pul
at
i
o
n C
o
m
m
i
ssi
on (
2
0
0
9
)
i
s
2,
89
2,
9
8
8
.
Out
of t
h
i
s
p
o
pul
at
i
o
n
1,
47
1,
96
7
were m
a
l
e
s w
h
i
l
e
1
,
4
2
1
,
02
1
w
e
re f
e
m
a
les [
1
1
]
. Th
e sam
p
lin
g
tech
n
i
qu
e adopted
f
o
r
th
is stud
y is str
a
tif
ied
syste
m
at
ic sa
mp
lin
g
an
d
th
e criteria fo
r stratificat
io
n
were th
e sen
a
torial d
i
st
ri
ct
s. The w
hol
e
of C
r
o
ss Rive
r State was stratified
base
d on t
h
e s
e
natorial distri
cts and thre
e L
GAs
we
re
random
ly selected from
each
senatorial district. Three
LGAs from
ea
ch strat
u
m
were selected
random
l
y using the
ra
ndom
table.
In th
e sou
t
h
e
rn sen
a
t
o
rial
d
i
strict, three LGAs, n
a
m
e
ly Calab
a
r M
u
n
i
cip
a
lity,
Od
ukp
an
i and
Akam
kpa we
re
rand
om
l
y
sel
e
ct
ed. I
n
t
h
e C
e
nt
ral
senat
o
ri
al district, three LGAs we
re sel
ected nam
e
ly Ikom
,
Et
un
g, a
n
d B
o
ki
. I
n
t
h
e N
o
rt
her
n
se
nat
o
ri
al
di
st
ri
ct
, t
h
ree
LGA
s
n
a
m
e
ly
Ob
u
d
u
,
B
e
k
w
a
rra a
n
d Yal
a
we
r
e
r
a
ndo
m
l
y selec
t
ed
fo
r
t
h
is stud
y.In
o
r
d
e
r to
select th
e subject o
f
t
h
e study sev
e
n
t
y (70
)
h
o
u
s
es
w
e
r
e
selected
in each LGA,
every fift
h house was sy
stematically chosen and two m
e
mber
s
of t
h
e house hol
d who can read
and write bet
w
een the
ages
of 18-75 were
g
i
v
e
n th
e
qu
estion
n
a
i
r
e to r
e
spon
d to
.
3.
SAMPLE
O
n
e hu
ndr
ed
an
d
fo
r
t
y
(1
40)
su
bj
ects w
e
r
e
selected
in
each
LGA. Two
co
un
cil ward
s
were equ
a
lly
selected from
each LGA. T
h
is was sy
stem
atically done in the nine (9)
LGAs selected for the sam
p
le. The
sam
p
l
e
si
ze for t
h
e st
udy
was
m
a
de up
of
o
n
e
t
h
o
u
san
d
t
w
o
hu
n
d
re
d an
d s
i
xt
y
(12
6
0
)
.
O
n
e hu
n
d
re
d an
d
fo
rt
y
(140) responde
n
ts were drawn from
each
LGA.
Two
“
Y
e
s
” we
re
written
on a
pieces
of
pape
r a
n
d the
othe
rs
“No”
. And t
h
ose who picked the “Yes”
autom
a
tically
were ch
o
s
en
as su
bj
ects fo
r th
e stu
d
y
. St
ratified
sam
p
l
i
ng i
s
general
l
y
rega
rde
d
as bei
n
g m
o
re sci
e
nt
i
f
i
c
, ri
go
r
ous a
nd a
d
vance
d
t
h
a
n
ra
nd
om
sam
p
l
i
n
g. T
h
e
sam
p
le f
o
r
t
h
e stud
y w
a
s
mad
e
up
of
O
n
e tho
u
sand tw
o
h
und
r
e
d and
si
x
t
y (12
60)
r
e
spon
d
e
n
t
s. Th
e
po
p
u
l
a
t
i
on
of t
h
e LG
A sel
ect
ed was
o
n
e m
i
l
l
i
on t
w
o
h
u
n
d
r
ed a
n
d seve
nt
y
one t
h
o
u
san
d
, f
o
ur
h
u
n
d
re
d an
d
t
w
ent
y
-ei
g
ht
(
1
,
2
7
1
,
4
28
) i
n
h
a
bi
t
a
nt
s. Se
ven
hu
nd
re
d an
d e
i
ght
(
7
0
8
)
res
p
on
de
nt
s wer
e
m
a
l
e
s represe
n
t
i
ng 5
6
p
e
r
cen
t
wh
ile Fiv
e
hun
dr
ed an
d
f
i
f
t
y tw
o (
5
5
2
)
r
e
spond
en
ts
w
e
r
e
f
e
males r
e
p
r
esen
tin
g
44
p
e
r
cen
t
. A
brea
k
d
o
w
n
of t
h
e
di
st
ri
b
u
t
i
o
n
of
sam
p
l
e
i
s
sh
ow
n i
n
Ta
bl
e
1
an
d
2.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
IJERE
Vol. 3, No. 4,
Decem
ber 2014 :
211 –
217
21
4
Tabl
e 1. Di
st
ri
but
i
o
n o
f
cri
t
e
r
i
a
fo
r
sam
p
l
e
S/N
Senator
i
al distr
i
cts
in CRS
LGA.
in CRS
LGA S
a
m
p
led/Sel
ected
1
1.
Souther
n
Senator
i
al Distr
i
ct
Calabar
M
unicipality
Calabar
M
unicipality
Calabar
South
Odukpani
Odupkani
Akam
kpa
Akpabouy
o
Akam
kpa
Bakassi
Biase
2.
Centr
a
l Senator
i
al Distr
i
ct
Yakur
r I
k
o
m
Obubr
a E
t
ung
I
k
o
m
Boki
Abi
E
t
ung
Boki
3
3
.
No
rth
e
rn
Sen
a
to
rial Dist
rict
Obudu
Obudu
Bekwar
r
a
Ogoja
Obanliku Yala
Ogoja
Yala
To
tal
Three (3)
E
i
ghteen (
18)
Nine (
9
)
Tabl
e
2.
Di
st
ri
but
i
o
n
o
f
st
u
d
y
sam
p
l
e
by
Loc
a
l
Go
ve
rnm
e
nt
Ar
ea/
st
rat
a
N/S LGA/St
rata
No.
of Per
s
on Selected
in each House
No.
of Houses
Selected in ea
ch L
GA.
No.
of Per
s
on Sam
p
led in
Each L
GA.
1 Calabar
M
unicipality
2
70
140
2 Odukpani
2
70
140
3 Akam
kpa
2
70
140
4 I
k
o
m
2
70
140
5 E
t
ung
2
70
140
6 Boki
2 70
140
7 Obudu
2
70
140
8 Bekwar
r
a
2
70
140
9 Yala
2
70
140
T
o
tal
630
1260
4.
INST
RU
MEN
T
ATION
In
o
r
d
e
r to
ob
tain
relev
a
n
t
d
a
ta fo
r th
e st
u
dy, a Percep
tion
of Millen
n
i
um Dev
e
lop
m
e
n
t Go
als
of
Env
i
ron
m
en
tal Su
stain
a
b
ility (PMDGESQ) qu
estionn
ai
re was d
e
si
g
n
e
d
to
ob
tain
in
form
atio
n
fro
m
resp
o
nde
nt
s. T
h
e q
u
est
i
o
nnai
r
e was di
vi
de
d
i
n
t
o
t
w
o sect
i
ons
. Sect
i
o
n A
deal
t
wi
t
h
de
m
ograp
hi
c dat
a
suc
h
as, Local
Governm
e
nt Area
and
Ge
nde
r while section B c
ontaine
d eight (8) item
s
for each va
riable t
o
elicit
responses
on t
h
e m
illennium
devel
opm
ent goals in term
s of access to safe drinking
wat
e
r. The
questionnai
r
e
ad
op
ted th
e
4-po
in
t Li
k
e
rt
scale form
at
wh
ich
is su
i
t
a
bl
e f
o
r t
h
i
s
st
udy
.
The
Li
ke
rt
t
y
pe Scal
e
fo
rm
at
in
terpretatio
n k
e
y
is g
i
v
e
n
as:Vo-Very o
f
ten
,
O –
Ofte
n, R
–
Rarel
y
, V
r-
Ve
ry
r
a
rely
.The
item
s
are
represen
ted
thu
s
: ite
m
1
-
8
measu
r
ed
Millen
n
i
u
m
Dev
e
lo
p
m
en
t Go
als o
f
Env
i
ro
n
m
en
tal Su
stain
a
b
ility in
t
e
rm
s of Acce
ss t
o
sa
fe
Dri
nki
ng
W
a
t
e
r.
The i
n
st
rum
e
n
t
was
devel
o
p
e
d
beari
n
g i
n
m
i
nd t
h
e t
a
r
g
e
t
s and
in
d
i
cators
o
f
Millen
n
i
u
m
d
e
v
e
lop
m
en
t g
o
a
l 7
c
.
In
o
r
d
e
r t
o
estab
lish
th
e
reliab
ility o
f
th
e in
stru
m
e
n
t
u
s
in
g
an
eq
u
i
v
a
lent g
r
oup
, reliabilit
y is th
e
co
nsisten
c
y with
wh
ich
an
instru
m
e
n
t
m
eas
u
r
es
wh
at
it is
su
ppo
sed
to
measu
r
e af
ter re
peated m
easure
m
ent.
Th
e reliab
ility o
f
th
e instrumen
t
was do
ne u
s
ing
Cro
nbach
Al
p
h
a
reliab
ility
in
o
r
der to
d
e
term
in
e th
e
reliab
ility o
f
th
e research
instru
m
e
n
t
(PMDGESQ).
Fi
fty co
p
i
es
o
f
t
h
e in
stru
m
e
n
t
were
d
i
stributed
to
resp
o
nde
nt
s
w
i
t
h
i
n
A
k
pab
u
y
o
L
o
cal
G
o
ve
rnm
e
nt
Area
.
The
resp
o
n
d
e
nt
s di
d
not
fo
rm
part
of
t
h
e fi
nal
sam
p
le. After
ad
m
i
n
i
stratio
n
,
th
e
d
a
ta co
llected
were an
al
yzed
using
Cro
n
b
a
ch
Alph
a reliab
ility esti
mate
usi
n
g s
u
b-
vari
abl
e
(
N
=
5
0
)
a
n
d
t
h
e
res
u
l
t
obt
ai
ne
d
was
.6
7.
Thi
s
was
use
d
s
o
a
s
t
o
fi
n
d
t
h
e
i
n
t
e
rnal
co
nsisten
c
y of th
e research
in
stru
m
e
n
t
. The resu
lt ob
tained
fro
m
th
e Cron
b
a
ch
Alph
a reliab
ility
o
f
t
h
e
instrum
e
nt (P
M
DGE
SQ
)
w
a
s .
6
7
,
while t
h
e m
ean (
̅
) a
n
d st
a
nda
r
d
de
vi
at
i
o
n
(S
D
)
were
2
0
.
9
8 a
n
d
3.
73
resp
ectiv
ely.
Th
is showed that th
e in
stru
men
t
was ap
propriate enough
to m
easur
e what it was desi
gned t
o
measure in the
study.
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Public Percept
i
on
of The
Millenni
um
Devel
opme
nt
Goals
on Access to Saf
e
Dri
n
king .... (Davi
d
D.
Eni)
21
5
5.
DAT
A P
R
EP
AR
ATIO
N
A
N
D
S
C
O
R
IN
G
Th
e qu
estionnair
e w
a
s d
i
v
i
ded
in
to
two
p
a
r
t
s: sectio
n
A
an
d
B.
Sectio
n A
con
t
ain
s
info
r
m
atio
n
o
n
dem
ogra
phi
c d
a
t
a
, such as L
o
cal
Go
ve
rnm
e
nt
Area a
nd
Gen
d
e
r
. F
o
r t
h
e L.G.
As, C
a
l
a
bar M
u
ni
ci
pal
i
t
y
was
code
d = 1, O
d
uk
pa
ni
= 2, Ak
am
kpa = 3, Ik
o
m
= 4, Et
un
g = 5, B
oki
= 6, O
b
u
d
u
= 7, B
e
k
w
ar
ra = 8, an
d Yal
a
= 9,
whi
l
e
t
h
e
codi
ng
f
o
r
Ge
nde
r
was as
fo
l
l
o
ws:
M
a
l
e
= 1 an
d
Fem
a
l
e
= 2.Sect
i
on B
was m
a
de up
of
4
0
q
u
e
stio
nn
aire ite
m
s
b
a
sed on
th
e
v
a
riab
les iden
tified
fo
r
t
h
e
st
u
d
y
.
T
h
e
va
r
i
abl
e
has
8 i
t
e
m
s
m
easuri
n
g i
t
. Th
e
4
poi
nt
Li
ke
rt
-t
y
p
e scal
e
was
use
d
.T
hese
ran
g
e
fr
om
Very
o
f
t
e
n,
O
f
t
e
n,
R
a
rel
y
an
d
Very
r
a
rel
y
.
6.
RESULTS
A
N
D
DI
SC
US
S
I
ON
To
test th
is h
y
p
o
t
h
e
sis, th
e t-test was u
s
ed
to
an
alyse th
e percep
tion
.
Th
e resu
lt is p
r
esen
t
e
d
in
Tab
l
e
3
.
Th
e resu
lt fro
m
Tab
l
e
3
sh
ows a sign
ifi
can
t bu
t
po
s
itiv
e t-v
a
lu
e of
12
.2
1. Th
e calcu
lated
t-v
a
lu
e
o
f
12
.2
was f
o
u
n
d
t
o
be si
g
n
i
f
i
cant
l
y
great
er t
h
a
n
t
h
e cri
t
i
cal
t
-
val
u
e of
1.
96 at
.05 l
e
vel
of s
i
gni
fi
ca
nt
wi
t
h
12
59
d
e
gree of freed
o
m
. Th
e p
o
s
itiv
e t-v
a
lu
e ob
tain
ed
in
th
e resu
lt i
m
p
lie
d
th
at, respond
en
ts h
a
v
e
adeq
u
a
t
e
perce
p
tion of
access to safe
drinking
water. The
pe
rce
p
tion
of t
h
e
Millennium
Developm
ent Goals of
en
v
i
ron
m
en
tal su
stain
a
b
ility was
sign
ifican
tly
ad
eq
u
a
te
(h
i
g
h).
Detailed
ex
p
l
an
atio
n
is
presen
ted
in
Tab
l
e 4,
ite
m
1
to
8.
A b
r
eakd
own
o
f
th
e an
alysis o
f
th
e pop
u
l
atio
n
t-test
sho
w
ed
th
at th
ere is sig
n
i
fican
t
p
o
sitiv
e t-v
a
lu
e
for b
o
ttles o
r
sach
et
water u
s
ed
afte
r m
eal, (t=17
.
0
5
;
P>.05
)
;
p
e
o
p
l
e
u
s
i
n
g
riv
e
rs an
d stream
s as a source
o
f
dri
nki
ng wat
e
r
and ho
use h
o
l
d
needs
,
(t
=
2
3
.
4
2
;
P>.
0
5);
natural s
p
ri
n
g
water
bein
g
used
fo
r d
o
m
estic
con
s
um
pt
i
on,
(
t
=6.1
3;
P>
.0
5
)
;
peo
p
l
e
usi
n
g
bo
re
h
o
l
e
wat
e
r f
o
r
h
o
u
se cl
e
a
n
up
,
(t
=1
6.
2
6
;
P>.
0
5);
rai
n
wat
e
r
bei
n
g
pol
l
u
t
e
d
wi
t
h
du
st
an
d c
a
rb
o
n
di
o
x
i
d
e,
(t
=7.
0
5;
P>.
0
5
)
;
an
d si
gni
fi
cant
ne
gat
i
v
e
t
-
v
a
l
u
es f
o
r
pi
pe
bo
r
n
e
w
a
ter
availab
l
e ar
ou
nd
your
ar
ea, (
t
=-
8.11
; P>.05
)
;
p
e
op
le u
s
ing
po
isonou
s ch
em
ical to
h
a
rv
est f
i
sh
es f
r
o
m
water
bodies, (t=-13.09; P>
.05); a
n
d
hum
a
n passi
ng faeces
into
rive
r a
n
d
st
ream
s,
(t=-2.16; P>.05). The
null
hypothesis wa
s rejecte
d
for
access to safe
dri
nki
ng
wate
r because the c
a
lculated t-
val
u
es of 17.05, 23.42,
6.
13
, 16
.2
6, 7.
05
,
-
8
.
1
1, -1
3.
09
,
a
nd -
2
.
16 were f
o
u
n
d
t
o
be
fa
r great
e
r
t
h
an
t
h
e
c
r
i
t
i
cal
t
-
val
u
e
o
f
1.
9
6
gi
v
e
n
.0
5 al
p
h
a l
e
vel
and
wi
t
h
12
5
9
de
g
r
ees o
f
f
r
eed
om
. From
th
e find
ing
s
ab
ov
e, it sh
ows th
at it is p
r
actically
i
m
p
o
ssib
l
e
f
o
r
Cr
o
s
s Riv
e
r
St
ate to
m
eet th
e MDG
targ
et t
o
h
a
lv
e b
y
2015
, t
h
e
pr
opo
r
tio
n of
p
e
r
s
on
s
w
ith
ou
t
sustaina
ble acc
ess to s
a
fe
drinking
water.
Table 3.
T-test analysis
of
the
perce
p
tion of MDG go
al
of e
nvi
ronm
ental sustaina
bility relating to
access to
safe dri
nki
ng
wat
e
r (N=
1
26
0
)
S/N Ite
m
Expected
Mean
Observed
Mean (
)
Standar
d
Deviation (
S
D)
t
How often do y
ou obser
ve the follow
i
ng in the
envir
o
n
m
ent?
1.
Bottle or sachet w
a
ter used
after m
e
a
l
.
2.5
2.96
.9
17.05
2.
People using r
i
ver
s
and str
e
a
m
s
a
s a
Sour
ce of
dr
inking water
a
nd househ
old needs.
2.
5 3.
10
.
92
23.
42
3.
Natur
a
l spr
i
ng water
being use fo
r
do
m
e
stic
consu
m
ption.
2.
5 2.
68
1.
05
6.
13
4.
People using bor
e hole water
for
house clean up.
2.
5
2.
94
.
95
16.
26
5.
Pipe bor
ne water available ar
ound
y
our
ar
ea.
2.
5
2.
23
1.
17
-
8
.
11
6.
Rain water being polluted with dust and car
bon
dioxide.
2.
5 2.
70
.
99
7.
05
7.
People using pois
o
nous chem
ical to har
v
est
fishes fr
o
m
bodies.
2.
5 2.
16
.
91
-
13.
09
8.
Hu
m
a
n passing f
aeces into river
a
nd strea
m
s
.
2.5
2.44 .99
-2.16
T
o
tal
20
21.
22
3.
54
12.
21
Si
gni
fi
cant
at
.
05;
d
f
=1
2
59;
c
r
i
t
i
cal
t
=
1.9
6
Fo
r th
e
sign
ifican
t po
sitiv
e t-v
a
l
u
es, t
h
is find
ing
m
ean
s th
at th
e p
e
rcep
tio
n of t
h
Millen
n
i
u
m
Devel
opm
ent Goals
of e
n
vironm
ental su
stainability in term
s
of access t
o
safe
dri
nki
ng water with
respect to
b
o
ttle water
u
s
ed
after m
eal, p
e
op
le using
riv
e
r an
d
st
ream
s
as a so
urce o
f
d
r
i
n
k
i
n
g
water and
hou
se h
o
l
d
need
s,
nat
u
ral
spri
ng wat
e
r b
e
i
ng use.F
o
r
d
o
m
e
st
i
c
c
ons
u
m
pti
on,
peo
p
l
e
usi
n
g b
o
re
h
o
l
e
wat
e
r f
o
r ho
use
clean
up
and
rain
water
b
e
ing
po
llu
ted
with d
u
s
t an
d
ca
rbo
n
d
i
ox
id
e b
y
literate
Cro
ss Riv
e
rian
are
perceiv
e
d
to
be sign
ifican
tly h
i
gh
. Ho
wev
e
r, t
h
e
neg
a
tiv
e t-v
a
l
u
es im
p
lied
th
at p
u
b
lic
p
e
rcep
tio
n
o
f
Millen
n
i
u
m
Devel
opm
ent
Goals of e
nvi
ronm
ental su
sta
i
nability in term
s of access t
o
sa
fe
dri
nki
ng with respe
c
t to
pi
pe
b
o
rn
e
w
a
ter
av
ailab
l
e ar
ound
i
n
th
e ar
ea,
p
e
op
le
u
s
ing
p
o
i
son
o
u
s
ch
emical to
h
a
rv
est f
i
sh
es fro
m
w
a
ter
bodies, a
n
d
hum
a
n passing
faeces int
o
ri
ver and st
r
eams perceive
d by literate Cr
oss Riverians as being
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
S
SN
:
2
252
-88
22
IJERE
Vol. 3, No. 4,
Decem
ber 2014 :
211 –
217
21
6
significa
ntly l
o
w. The fi
ndi
ng m
eans that literate Cr
oss Riverians ha
ve high
perce
p
t
i
on of access
to safe
d
r
i
n
k
i
n
g
water
in
term
s o
f
all t
h
e item
s
.
The educational im
plica
tion is th
at, teachers should be
able to
expose
the childre
n to a dece
nt
m
e
thod of
tre
a
ting water before dri
nki
ng. They
should also
be taugh
t that rain
water contains
carbon
e
m
ission subst
a
nces that can affect
t
h
e hea
l
t
h
st
at
us of h
u
m
a
n
bei
n
gs
i
f
i
t
’
s not
t
r
eat
ed. St
u
d
ent
s
w
h
o
use
riv
e
r an
d stream
as th
eir source
o
f
drink
i
ng
water shou
ld
b
e
taug
h
t
on
h
o
w to
bo
il an
d
filter water b
e
fore
dri
nki
ng
.
7.
DIS
C
USSI
ON OF F
I
NDI
N
GS
Th
e
resu
lts ob
tain
ed
fro
m
testin
g
th
e h
y
p
o
t
h
e
sis
sh
owed
a sig
n
i
fican
t
bu
t po
sitiv
e t-valu
e of
1
2
.21
an
d th
e
calcu
lated
t-v
a
lu
e
of
1
.
9
6
at .0
5 levels o
f
si
gn
ifican
ce with
1
259
d
e
grees
o
f
f
r
ee
dom
. Fr
om
t
h
e res
u
l
t
obtaine
d, res
p
onde
nts
ha
ve
adequate
perce
p
tion
of access t
o
safe dri
nki
ng
water. T
h
e res
u
lt also showe
d
that
,
resp
o
nde
nt
s h
a
ve ade
q
uat
e
pe
rcept
i
o
n
of
pe
opl
e
usi
n
g ri
ve
rs an
d st
ream
s as a sou
r
ce
of
dri
n
ki
n
g
wat
e
r an
d
al
so u
s
e t
h
i
s
s
o
u
r
ce
fo
r
ot
he
r h
o
u
se
hol
d
n
eeds.
The
fi
nd
i
ng al
s
o
s
h
ow
ed t
h
at
,
res
p
o
nde
nt
s
ha
ve a
d
eq
uat
e
perce
p
t
i
o
n of nat
u
ral
sp
ri
n
g
wat
e
r bei
n
g us
ed
f
o
r dom
est
i
c
co
nsum
pt
i
o
n
.
The
fi
ndi
ng
was
l
i
n
e wi
t
h
Eg
bo
rg
e
(1
9
9
8
)
w
h
o
ob
serve
d
t
h
at
, hi
st
ori
cal
l
y
dri
n
ki
n
g
o
f
ri
ve
r
wat
e
r m
u
st
be
nearl
y
as
ol
d a
s
t
h
e creat
i
o
n
of m
a
n
al
t
hou
g
h
t
h
e fi
rst
bo
o
k
o
f
M
o
ses re
p
o
rt
s t
h
e use o
f
wat
e
r
fo
r i
rri
gat
i
on (
s
ee Genesi
s
2:
10
) [
12]
. T
h
e f
i
ndi
n
g
was al
so i
n
l
i
n
e wi
t
h
B
i
so
ng
(2
0
0
1
)
w
h
o ar
gue
d t
h
at
r
u
ral
dri
n
ki
n
g
wat
e
r so
urce
s com
e
l
a
rgel
y
fr
om
sur
f
ac
e
stream
s and
rivers
[3]. T
h
is
m
a
kes them
susce
p
tible
to easy po
llu
tio
n
an
d co
n
t
am
in
atio
n
fro
m
carelessly
dum
ped
wast
e
s
.
W
a
t
e
r f
r
o
m
st
ream
s and
ri
ver
s
are
co
n
t
a
m
inated by
solid
wastes s
u
ch as e
x
cre
m
ents,
agri
c
u
l
t
u
ral
wa
st
e and
dea
d
or
gani
sm
s. The
f
i
ndi
n
g
was i
n
c
ons
o
n
a
n
ce wi
t
h
E
k
p
o
h
(
2
00
2
)
w
h
o
obse
r
ve
d t
h
at
nat
u
ral
wat
e
r i
s
n
o
t
pu
re, t
e
c
hni
cal
l
y
, si
nce
i
t
cont
ai
ns
cert
a
i
n
am
ount
of
di
ssol
v
ed
s
ubst
a
nces
wi
t
h
w
h
i
c
h i
t
’
s
com
e
i
n
t
o
cont
act
[1
3]
. Am
ong t
h
e
vari
ous
sou
r
ces
of
f
r
es
hwat
e
r
,
ri
ver
wat
e
r
has a
rel
a
t
i
v
el
y
l
o
w de
gree
o
f
mineral content because the
water ente
ring the rive
r
from
the catchm
e
nt ar
ea flows t
h
rough well-was
h
e
d
s
o
il.
Th
e st
u
d
y
is in lin
e
with
Ita (2
010
),
who
stated
th
at, th
e cit
y
o
f
Calab
a
r en
jo
ys
po
rtab
le
p
i
p
e
bo
rn
e
water
roun
d the clo
c
k, m
a
k
i
ng
it p
e
rh
ap
s the on
ly city
in
th
e co
un
try
ou
tsid
e
A
buja
where s
u
ch exist
[14]
.
The st
udy
i
s
a
l
so i
n
l
i
n
e
wi
t
h
C
u
n
n
i
n
gham
an
d C
u
n
n
i
n
gh
am
(20
0
4
)
,
w
h
o
obse
r
ved t
h
a
t
, w
o
rl
d
w
i
d
e
,
cl
ean
water is m
o
re
available to urban
people tha
n
to ru
ral pe
ople, but access
to good
water is a
major
problem
[1
5]
.
It was obvious from
the result of the finding th
at respondents have access
to water from various
sou
r
ces
b
u
t
t
h
e
y
are
un
safe
f
o
r
hum
an c
ons
u
m
pti
on.
Thi
s
inva
riably m
eans t
h
at, t
h
e M
D
G target to halve,
by
2015 the proportion of pe
rs
ons
with
out s
u
staina
bly access to safe dri
nki
ng
water might not be met. The
reaso
n
i
s
beca
use o
f
t
h
e si
g
n
i
fi
cant
neg
a
t
i
v
e t
-
val
u
e
obt
ai
ned
fo
r i
t
e
m
7 whi
c
h st
at
es h
o
w
oft
e
n y
o
u
obs
er
ve
p
e
op
le using
po
isono
u
s
ch
emicals to
h
a
rv
est
fish
es
fr
om
water bodies.
Anothe
r reas
on why one can
spe
c
ulate
that the MDG target m
i
ght not be
m
e
t is because of
the signi
ficant ne
gative
t-valu
e obtained for ite
m
8
whic
h
state that how
ofte
n you
obse
rve
hu
m
a
ns pa
ssing faeces
into ri
vers
and s
t
ream
s. From
the a
f
orem
entione
d
respon
d
e
n
t
s
p
e
o
p
l
e still u
s
e t
h
ese
u
n
s
afe sou
r
ces of dr
ink
i
n
g
water th
at
are con
t
am
in
at
ed
wit
h
po
ison
ou
s
chem
icals, household
waste, l
eaves a
n
d
hum
an
faeces.
8.
CO
NCL
USI
O
N
Th
is stud
y was ai
m
e
d
at
ev
alu
a
ting
th
e p
e
rcep
tio
n
of millen
n
i
u
m
d
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
en
t g
o
a
ls of
en
v
i
ron
m
en
tal
su
stain
a
b
ility
i
n
Cro
ss Riv
e
r State, Nig
e
ria.
To
attain
th
is
o
b
j
ectiv
es o
n
e
research
h
ypo
t
h
esis
was f
o
rm
ul
at
ed ba
sed
o
n
t
h
e
sub
-
vari
a
b
l
e
i
d
ent
i
f
i
e
d f
o
r t
h
e
st
udy
.
It
was
di
sco
v
ere
d
t
h
at
m
a
ny
ho
use
h
o
l
d d
o
not ha
ve acce
ss to safe drinki
ng
water.
There
f
ore e
fforts shoul
d intensify in providing
water to Cros
s
Riverians
.
Thi
s
is because water supp
ly is the res
p
onsibili
ty of govern
ment and the
governm
e
nt should live
up to its expec
t
ation of the
pe
ople.
Finally,
gove
rnm
e
nt should m
a
ke sure
that
water supply
reaches
the
nook
and c
r
an
ny
o
f
t
h
e St
at
e and
by
so d
o
i
n
g m
eek t
h
e M
D
G t
a
rget
, t
o
hal
v
e, by
20
1
5
t
h
e
pr
op
ort
i
o
n
of
C
r
oss
Riverians
without
sustaina
ble
acce
ss to safe
dri
nki
ng water.
9.
RECO
M
M
E
N
D
A
TIO
N
S
B
a
sed on
t
h
e fi
ndi
ng
s of
t
h
i
s
s
t
udy
,
t
h
e fol
l
o
wi
n
g
recom
m
endat
i
o
ns
we
re m
a
de:
Go
ve
rnm
e
nt
and
ot
her
de
vel
opm
ent
age
n
ci
es sh
o
u
l
d
em
bark on
water s
c
hem
e
s across
the state t
o
provide
portable and
afforda
b
le water in the State as it
has done i
n
Calaba
r m
e
tropolis.
This will reduce the
co
nsu
m
p
tio
n
of rain
water wh
ich
is u
s
u
a
lly p
o
llu
ted
wi
t
h
dust
a
nd ca
rb
on
di
o
x
i
d
e
.
Se
con
d
l
y
, t
h
e
ob
sol
e
t
e
water wo
rk
s an
d
water supp
ly in
frastru
cture in
Ug
ep
, Ikom
,
Og
oj
a and
Obud
u
sh
ou
l
d
b
e
reh
a
b
ilitated
and
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
J
ERE
I
S
SN
:
225
2-8
8
2
2
Public Percept
i
on
of The
Millenni
um
Devel
opme
nt
Goals
on Access to Saf
e
Dri
n
king .... (Davi
d
D.
Eni)
21
7
rev
i
v
e
an
d m
a
d
e
fun
c
tion
a
l,
so
as to
prov
ide po
rtab
le wat
e
r to o
t
h
e
r ru
ral co
mm
u
n
ities
in
Cro
ss Ri
v
e
r State.
Thi
r
dl
y
,
t
h
ere
sho
u
l
d
be p
u
b
l
i
c
enl
i
ght
enm
e
nt
pr
o
g
ram
m
es on t
h
e ri
s
k
o
f
usi
n
g p
o
i
s
o
n
o
u
s
chem
i
c
al
t
o
harvest
fish
from
water
bodies a
n
d al
so t
h
e
health
hazard of
passi
ng hum
a
n faec
es into ri
vers
a
n
d stream
s. Fi
nally,
there s
h
oul
d
be
an a
w
a
r
enes
s
ca
m
p
aign
on t
h
e
health im
plications of
pa
ss
ing faeces
i
n
to
rivers a
n
d strea
m
s.
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NC
ES
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e
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