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a
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in
1.
I
NT
RO
D
UCT
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O
N
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Dig
ital
to
A
n
alo
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co
n
v
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ter
(
DAC)
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i
t
w
h
ich
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ig
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al
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t
is
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s
ed
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ig
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s
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A
C
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ar
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ical
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s
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m
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li
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E
lectr
o
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ic
s
d
is
p
la
y
[
1
-
7
]
.
T
h
e
C
u
r
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en
t
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AC
s
ar
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e
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co
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ased
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[
8
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9
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.
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itab
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ta
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w
it
h
t
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ch
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it
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ch
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an
d
p
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d
[
1
0
,
1
1
]
.
2.
CURR
E
N
T
S
T
E
E
RI
N
G
D
AC
DAC
ar
e
v
ailab
le
i
n
f
o
r
m
o
f
v
ar
io
u
s
ar
ch
itect
u
r
es:
Dec
o
d
er
b
ased
DAC,
W
eig
h
ted
R
D
AC
,
R
-
2
R
L
ad
d
er
D
A
C
,
c
h
ar
g
ed
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AC
,
C
u
u
r
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t
s
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n
g
D
AC
.
C
o
m
p
ar
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to
o
th
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r
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r
c
h
itect
u
r
r
s
,
C
u
r
r
en
t
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D
A
C
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
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2
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.
N
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it
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C
is
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ted
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th
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r
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t
h
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ar
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h
itect
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r
e
o
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er
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t
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f
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lated
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N
L
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f
4
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it
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ar
y
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u
r
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en
t
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g
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h
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v
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g
v
ar
io
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s
t
y
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e
o
f
s
w
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e
s
:
NM
OS,
P
MO
S
an
d
tr
an
s
m
i
s
s
io
n
g
ate
[
9
,
1
2
]
.
DA
C
ar
e
ev
alu
ated
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ased
o
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th
e
v
ar
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s
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ar
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e
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er
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R
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m
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tio
n
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ette
lin
g
ti
m
e,
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y
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m
ic
r
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e,
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in
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r
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NL
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n
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DN
L
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n
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h
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,
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N
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f
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li
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[
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w
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(
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ter
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N
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n
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T
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e
ch
ar
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ch
itectu
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i
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ar
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x
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ter
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s
o
f
n
u
m
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er
o
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r
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s
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e
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s
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as
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a
m
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ce
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r
r
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m
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cu
r
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d
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in
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less
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li
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t
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eq
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ir
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r
e
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
SS
N
:
2
0
8
8
-
8708
I
n
t J
E
lec
&
C
o
m
p
E
n
g
,
Vo
l.
10
,
No
.
6
,
Decem
b
er
2020
:
5
6
4
2
-
5
6
4
9
5644
ar
ea
.
I
t
is
also
r
eq
u
ir
ed
t
o
h
av
e
ad
d
itio
n
al
h
ar
d
w
ar
e
to
co
n
v
er
t
b
in
ar
y
co
d
e
in
to
th
er
m
o
m
eter
co
d
e
[
1
9
-
2
2
]
.
L
o
o
k
i
n
g
to
i
m
p
le
m
en
ta
tio
n
,
ar
ea
ef
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icie
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c
y
a
n
d
f
r
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ar
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co
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co
n
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ar
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r
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en
t
s
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A
C
s
tr
u
ct
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r
e
is
th
e
s
i
m
p
lest
o
n
e.
N
b
it
co
n
f
ig
u
r
atio
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w
h
ic
h
n
ee
d
s
o
n
l
y
N
c
u
r
r
en
t
s
o
u
r
ce
s
.
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h
e
y
ar
e
s
tr
aig
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t
-
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ar
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l
y
w
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ed
b
y
th
e
li
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ea
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ar
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t
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w
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er
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u
e
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e
i
n
ad
eq
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ate
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y
n
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h
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izatio
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h
e
s
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av
io
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h
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s
in
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s
er
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al.
T
h
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r
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b
le
m
is
ad
d
r
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u
s
i
n
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b
etter
s
w
itc
h
.
T
h
is
s
tr
u
ctu
r
e
also
o
f
f
er
s
a
m
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in
f
o
r
m
o
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less
n
o
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o
f
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an
s
is
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s
as
w
ell.
T
h
e
4
-
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it
b
in
ar
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ei
g
h
ted
cu
r
r
en
t steer
i
n
g
D
A
C
i
s
as
s
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o
w
n
i
n
Fi
g
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r
e
2
[
1
7
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0
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2
3
-
2
5
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.
Fig
u
r
e
2
.
4
-
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it
b
in
ar
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w
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g
h
te
d
cu
r
r
en
t steer
in
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D
AC
T
h
e
p
r
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w
o
r
k
is
f
o
cu
s
ed
to
d
esig
n
a
n
d
a
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al
y
s
e
t
h
e
ef
f
ec
t
o
f
v
ar
io
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s
t
y
p
es
o
f
s
w
itc
h
es
o
n
n
o
n
lin
ea
r
it
y
er
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o
r
s
a
y
DN
L
a
n
d
I
NL
.
B
ased
o
n
u
n
d
er
s
tan
d
i
n
g
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
liter
at
u
r
e
s
u
r
v
e
y
,
t
h
r
e
e
t
y
p
es
o
f
s
w
i
tch
e
s
s
a
y
NM
O
S,
P
MO
S
an
d
tr
an
s
m
is
s
io
n
g
ate
h
a
v
e
b
ee
n
tr
ied
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d
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m
u
la
tio
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o
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ea
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h
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e
h
as
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ee
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ca
r
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ied
o
u
t.
Fo
r
t
h
e
p
r
o
p
o
s
ed
d
esig
n
a
n
d
s
i
m
u
latio
n
,
ca
d
e
n
ce
to
o
l
is
u
s
e
d
w
it
h
1
8
0
n
m
C
MO
S
tech
n
o
l
o
g
y
.
T
h
e
p
r
o
p
o
s
ed
cu
r
r
en
t
s
teer
i
n
g
D
A
C
o
f
f
er
s
d
esire
d
I
NL
an
d
DN
L
w
it
h
r
ate
d
p
o
w
er
co
n
s
u
m
p
tio
n
.
3.
VARIO
US
SWI
T
CH
I
NG
A
P
P
RO
ACH
E
S
A
m
ai
n
s
o
u
r
ce
o
f
n
o
n
li
n
ea
r
i
t
y
o
r
ig
i
n
ate
s
b
ec
au
s
e
o
f
g
lit
ch
es
i
n
t
h
e
c
u
r
r
en
t
ce
ll.
Mo
r
e
n
o
.
o
f
tr
an
s
itio
n
s
r
es
u
lt
s
m
o
r
e
n
o
.
o
f
ch
a
n
g
es
t
h
e
s
ta
tes
o
f
s
w
itc
h
es
s
a
y
o
n
to
o
f
f
o
r
v
ice
v
er
s
a.
I
n
ca
s
e
o
f
4
-
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it
b
in
ar
y
w
ei
g
h
ted
D
A
C
,
w
h
e
n
in
p
u
t
ch
a
n
g
es
f
r
o
m
0
0
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1
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,
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ig
g
litch
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s
o
b
s
er
v
ed
b
ec
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e
o
f
3
tr
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s
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s
.
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m
ilar
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y
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h
e
n
i
n
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u
t
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h
an
g
es
f
r
o
m
0
1
1
1
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1
0
0
0
,
ev
en
b
ig
g
litc
h
w
ill
b
e
th
er
e
as
th
er
e
ar
e
4
tr
an
s
itio
n
s
.
I
n
ca
s
e
o
f
u
n
ar
y
w
ei
g
h
ted
D
A
C
,
t
h
er
e
is
o
n
l
y
1
-
b
it
tr
an
s
it
io
n
s
o
th
er
e
is
n
o
g
litc
h
b
u
t
it
n
ee
d
s
m
o
r
e
n
o
.
o
f
c
u
r
r
en
t
s
o
u
r
ce
s
;
f
o
r
4
-
b
it
u
n
ar
y
c
u
r
r
en
t
s
teer
i
n
g
D
A
C
,
1
5
cu
r
r
en
t
s
o
u
r
ce
s
o
f
h
av
i
n
g
s
a
m
e
v
alu
e
ar
e
r
eq
u
ir
ed
.
T
h
er
m
o
m
eter
co
d
e
is
u
s
ed
to
co
n
tr
o
l
th
e
s
w
i
t
ch
es.
A
d
d
itio
n
al
h
ar
d
w
ar
e
is
r
eq
u
ir
ed
to
co
n
v
er
t
b
in
ar
y
co
d
e
in
to
th
er
m
o
m
eter
co
d
es [
2
6
-
2
9
]
.
C
h
ar
ac
ter
is
tics
o
f
s
w
itc
h
al
s
o
p
lay
a
n
i
m
p
o
r
ta
n
t
r
o
le.
T
h
er
e
ar
e
v
ar
io
u
s
o
p
tio
n
s
f
o
r
th
e
s
a
m
e:
NM
OS,
P
MO
S,
T
r
an
s
m
is
s
io
n
g
ate.
NM
OS
an
d
P
MO
S
ar
e
u
s
ed
a
s
a
s
in
g
le
d
ev
ice
a
n
d
c
o
n
tr
o
lled
b
y
s
in
l
g
e
in
p
u
t.
W
h
i
le
tr
an
s
m
i
s
s
io
n
g
at
e
is
p
ar
allel
co
m
b
i
n
atio
n
o
f
NM
OS
an
d
P
MO
S
an
d
co
m
p
le
m
en
tar
y
co
n
tr
o
l
in
p
u
t
s
ar
e
d
esire
d
in
th
i
s
ca
s
e
[
2
2
]
.
4.
SI
M
UL
AT
I
O
N
R
E
S
UL
T
S
AND
DIS
CUSS
I
O
NS
4
-
b
it
b
in
ar
y
w
ei
g
h
ted
cu
r
r
en
t
s
teer
in
g
D
AC
h
a
v
e
b
ee
n
i
m
p
le
m
e
n
ted
u
s
i
n
g
ca
d
e
n
ce
v
ir
tu
o
s
o
i
n
C
MO
S
1
8
0
n
m
tec
h
n
o
lo
g
y
.
T
h
is
co
n
v
er
ter
d
ev
elo
p
ed
a
n
d
s
i
m
u
lated
i
n
a
1
8
0
n
m
C
M
OS
tech
n
o
lo
g
y
w
it
h
s
u
p
p
l
y
v
o
ltag
e
o
f
1
.
8
V.
B
ased
o
n
th
r
ee
d
if
f
er
en
t
t
y
p
e
o
f
s
w
itc
h
es,
th
r
ee
p
o
s
s
ib
le
co
m
b
in
atio
n
s
h
a
v
e
b
ee
n
s
i
m
u
lated
.
DN
L
a
n
d
I
N
L
w
er
e
ca
lcu
la
ted
f
o
r
all
t
h
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[4
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Briefs,
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p
.
1
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5
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–
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1
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6
,
2
0
1
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.
[6
]
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.
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lea
r S
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ien
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v
o
l.
5
7
,
pp.
2
9
2
–
2
9
9
,
2
0
1
0
.
[7
]
G
.
P
a
rk
a
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d
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.
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o
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,
"
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.
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4
.
[8
]
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233
–
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4
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,
2
0
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5
.
[9
]
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p
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3
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4
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5
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p
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.
[1
6
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-
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ju
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p
p
.
3
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5
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0
0
7
.
[1
7
]
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-
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8
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u
l
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r P
a
p
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,
v
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5
5
,
n
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.
6
,
pp.
1
4
5
5
–
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4
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3
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0
8
.
[1
9
]
R.
Ru
b
in
o
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P
.
S
.
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v
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0
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8
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n
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.
6
,
pp.
1
4
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6
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1
3
.
[2
1
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W.
-
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rc
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s,
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l.
4
7
,
n
o
.
2
,
pp.
444
–
4
5
3
,
2
0
1
1
.
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3
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4
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9
M
IXDE
S
-
2
6
th
In
ter
n
a
ti
o
n
a
l
C
o
n
fer
e
n
c
e
,
"
M
ixe
d
De
sig
n
o
f
In
teg
ra
te
d
Circ
u
it
s
a
n
d
S
y
ste
ms
,"
Rz
e
sz
ó
w
,
P
o
lan
d
,
p
p
.
1
5
1
-
1
5
6
,
2
0
1
9
.
[2
5
]
H.
Cru
z
,
T
.
-
C.
Ye
h
,
H.
-
Y.
Hu
a
n
g
,
S
.
-
Y.
L
e
e
a
n
d
C.
-
H.
L
u
o
,
"
D
A
C
f
o
r
p
o
sitro
n
e
m
is
sio
n
to
m
o
g
ra
p
h
y
f
ro
n
t
-
e
n
d
,
"
2
0
1
4
I
EE
E
I
n
ter
n
a
ti
o
n
a
l
S
y
mp
o
siu
m
o
n
Bi
o
e
lec
tro
n
ics
a
n
d
Bi
o
in
fo
rm
a
t
ics
(
IEE
E
IS
BB
2
0
1
4
),
Ch
u
n
g
L
i,
p
p
.
1
-
4,
2
0
1
4
.
[2
6
]
H.
Cru
z
,
H.
-
Y.
Hu
a
n
g
,
C
.
-
H.
L
u
o
,
L
.
-
Y.
Ch
i
o
u
a
n
d
S
.
-
Y.
L
e
e
,
"
A
n
o
v
e
l
c
lo
c
k
-
p
u
lse
-
w
id
th
c
a
li
b
ra
ti
o
n
tec
h
n
iq
u
e
f
o
r
c
h
a
rg
e
re
d
istri
b
u
ti
o
n
DA
Cs,"
2
0
1
7
I
EE
E
I
n
ter
n
a
ti
o
n
a
l
S
y
mp
o
siu
m
o
n
Circ
u
it
s
a
n
d
S
y
ste
ms
(
IS
C
AS
),
Ba
lt
im
o
re
,
M
D,
p
p
.
1
-
4,
2
0
1
7
.
[2
7
]
F.
-
T
.
Ch
o
u
,
Z.
-
Y.
Ch
e
n
a
n
d
C.
-
C.
Hu
n
g
,
"
A
1
0
-
b
it
2
5
0
M
S
/s
lo
w
-
g
li
tch
b
in
a
ry
-
we
ig
h
ted
d
ig
it
a
l
-
to
-
a
n
a
lo
g
c
o
n
v
e
rter,"
in
2
0
1
4
2
7
t
h
IEE
E
In
ter
n
a
ti
o
n
a
l
S
y
ste
m
-
on
-
Ch
ip
Co
n
fer
e
n
c
e
(
S
OCC),
L
a
s
V
e
g
a
s,
NV
,
2
0
1
4
,
p
p
.
2
3
1
-
2
3
5
,
2
0
1
4
.
[2
8
]
O.
A
iello
,
P
.
Cr
o
v
e
tt
i
a
n
d
M
.
A
li
o
to
,
"
S
tan
d
a
rd
Ce
ll
-
Ba
se
d
Ultra
-
Co
m
p
a
c
t
D
A
Cs
in
4
0
-
n
m
CM
OS,
"
IEE
E
Acc
e
ss
,
v
o
l.
7
,
p
p
.
1
2
6
4
7
9
–
1
2
6
4
8
8
,
2
0
1
9
.
[2
9
]
Ja
y
e
sh
P
a
tel,
Am
ish
a
Na
ik
.
“
A
Lo
w
V
o
lt
a
g
e
Hig
h
S
p
e
e
d
S
e
g
m
e
n
t
e
d
Cu
rre
n
t
S
tee
rin
g
DA
C
f
o
r
Ne
u
ra
l
S
ti
m
u
latio
n
A
p
p
li
c
a
ti
o
n
,”
I
n
ter
n
a
t
io
n
a
l
J
o
u
r
n
a
l
o
f
Rec
e
n
t
T
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y
a
n
d
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
rin
g
,
v
o
l.
8
,
n
o
.
5
,
p
p
.
4
2
7
0
-
4
2
7
4
,
2
0
2
0
.
B
I
O
G
RAP
H
I
E
S O
F
AUTH
O
RS
J
a
y
e
shk
u
m
a
r
J
.
Pa
te
l
is
p
u
rsu
in
g
h
is
P
h
.
d
f
ro
m
Nir
m
a
Un
iv
e
rsity
,
A
h
m
e
d
a
b
a
d
in
th
e
f
ield
o
f
m
i
x
e
d
sig
n
a
l
c
ircu
it
d
e
sig
n
.
He
o
b
tai
n
e
d
h
is
M
.
T
e
c
h
in
EC
(V
L
S
I
De
sig
n
)
f
ro
m
In
stit
u
te
o
f
T
e
c
h
n
o
lo
g
y
,
Nir
m
a
Un
iv
e
rsit
y
,
A
h
m
e
d
a
b
a
d
in
2
0
0
7
.
He
d
id
h
i
s
B.
E
f
ro
m
BV
M
Co
ll
e
g
e
o
f
En
g
in
e
e
rin
g
,
V
a
ll
a
b
h
V
id
y
a
n
a
g
a
r.
He
h
a
s
p
u
b
li
sh
e
d
m
a
n
y
tec
h
n
ica
l
p
a
p
e
rs
in
n
a
ti
o
n
a
l
a
n
d
in
tern
a
ti
o
n
a
l
j
o
u
r
n
a
ls.
He
h
a
s
m
o
re
th
a
n
1
8
y
e
a
rs
o
f
e
x
p
e
rien
c
e
in
tea
c
h
in
g
a
t
UG
&
P
G
lev
l.
He
a
lso
w
o
rk
e
d
f
o
r
in
d
u
stry
f
o
r
a
b
o
u
t
5
y
e
a
rs.
His
re
se
a
rc
h
in
tere
s
t
in
c
lu
d
e
s
A
n
a
lo
g
a
n
d
M
ix
e
d
sig
n
a
l
V
L
S
I
Dr
.
A
m
is
h
a
N
a
i
k
is
w
o
rk
in
g
a
s
A
ss
o
c
iate
p
ro
f
e
ss
o
r
a
t
EC
d
e
p
a
rtme
n
t,
Nirm
a
Un
iv
e
rsit
y
,
A
h
m
e
d
a
b
a
d
sin
c
e
2
0
0
1
.
S
h
e
te
a
c
h
e
s
b
o
t
h
a
t
UG
a
n
d
P
G
lev
e
l.
S
h
e
d
id
B.
E
in
El
e
c
tro
n
ics
f
ro
m
Re
g
io
n
a
l
En
g
in
e
e
rin
g
Co
ll
e
g
e
,
S
u
ra
t
in
th
e
y
e
a
r
1
9
9
7
a
n
d
o
b
tai
n
e
d
M
.
T
e
c
h
a
n
d
P
h
.
D
in
V
L
S
I
De
sig
n
a
re
a
in
th
e
y
e
a
r
2
0
0
6
a
n
d
2
0
1
1
re
sp
e
c
ti
v
e
ly
f
ro
m
Nir
m
a
Un
iv
e
rsit
y
,
A
h
m
e
d
a
b
a
d
.
S
h
e
h
a
s
p
u
b
li
sh
e
d
m
a
n
y
p
a
p
e
rs
in
n
a
ti
o
n
a
l
a
n
d
i
n
tern
a
ti
o
n
a
l
j
o
u
r
n
a
ls.
S
h
e
is
g
u
i
d
i
n
g
se
v
e
ra
l
P
h
.
D
stu
d
e
n
ts
in
t
h
e
a
re
a
o
f
a
n
a
lo
g
a
n
d
m
i
x
e
d
sig
n
a
l
c
ircu
it
d
e
sig
n
.
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