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Un
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ap
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C
ity
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1.
I
NT
RO
D
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O
N
Ma
ln
u
tr
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esp
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s
tu
n
ti
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g
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is
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ten
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in
ch
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f
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lo
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e
f
am
ilies
,
esp
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p
in
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co
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tr
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[
1
]
.
On
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o
f
th
e
in
f
lu
en
tial
f
ac
to
r
s
is
p
o
v
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ty
[
2
]
,
[
3
]
.
Mo
r
e
th
a
n
2
5
%
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I
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d
o
n
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in
f
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[
4
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.
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[
5
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.
T
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th
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[
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.
C
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f
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a
m
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[
7
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,
[
8
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.
T
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7
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v
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9
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Alth
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Sep
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20
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b
lic
o
f
I
n
d
o
n
esia'
s
s
tu
n
tin
g
r
ep
o
r
t
f
r
o
m
2
0
1
9
(
2
7
.
2
7
%)
to
2
0
2
2
(
2
1
.
6
%)
s
h
o
ws
a
d
ec
r
ea
s
e
in
t
h
e
p
r
ev
ale
n
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
in
I
n
d
o
n
esia
o
f
r
o
u
g
h
ly
5
.
6
%
[
1
0
]
.
T
h
is
is
a
b
r
ea
th
o
f
f
r
esh
a
ir
f
o
r
th
e
I
n
d
o
n
esian
g
o
v
er
n
m
en
t.
Ho
wev
er
,
t
h
e
p
r
ev
alen
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
i
n
2
0
2
2
is
s
till
b
elo
w
th
e
I
n
d
o
n
esian
g
o
v
er
n
m
e
n
t'
s
tar
g
et
in
2
0
2
4
o
f
1
4
%,
f
o
r
w
h
ich
th
er
e
is
a
n
ee
d
f
o
r
co
m
p
r
e
h
e
n
s
iv
e
an
d
s
u
s
tain
ab
le
ef
f
o
r
ts
an
d
th
e
n
ee
d
f
o
r
a
s
u
s
tain
ab
l
e
f
u
n
d
in
g
p
u
s
h
o
n
co
m
m
u
n
ity
-
b
ased
in
ter
v
en
tio
n
s
.
An
ac
cu
r
ate
ass
ess
m
en
t
o
f
th
e
im
p
ac
t
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
m
u
s
t
s
till
b
e
co
n
d
u
cted
in
I
n
d
o
n
esia,
g
i
v
en
th
at
th
e
p
r
ev
alen
ce
in
I
n
d
o
n
esia
is
s
till
b
elo
w
th
e
p
r
escr
ib
ed
lev
el,
as
well
as
th
e
m
an
y
f
ac
t
o
r
s
th
at
ca
u
s
e
s
tu
n
tin
g
.
Fo
r
th
is
r
ea
s
o
n
,
co
n
tin
u
o
u
s
ev
alu
atio
n
is
n
ee
d
ed
to
d
ev
elo
p
in
ter
v
en
tio
n
s
an
d
en
s
u
r
e
th
e
i
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
en
t
o
f
th
e
co
u
n
tr
y
'
s
welf
ar
e
in
th
e
lo
n
g
ter
m
[
1
1
]
.
A
m
u
lti
-
r
e
g
io
n
al
s
tu
d
y
b
y
E
k
h
o
lu
en
etale
et
a
l.
in
d
icate
d
th
at
s
tu
n
ted
ch
ild
r
en
h
a
d
ap
p
r
o
x
im
ately
7
%
less
d
elay
ed
co
g
n
itiv
e
d
ev
elo
p
m
en
t
th
a
n
n
o
n
-
s
tu
n
ted
c
h
ild
r
en
[
1
2
]
.
T
h
ese
f
in
d
in
g
s
r
em
in
d
u
s
o
f
th
e
n
ec
ess
ity
o
f
tim
ely
tr
ea
tm
en
ts
to
r
ed
u
ce
th
e
d
ev
astatin
g
im
p
ac
t
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
.
I
m
p
air
ed
ea
r
ly
g
r
o
wth
an
d
d
ev
elo
p
m
en
t
ca
n
p
a
v
e
th
e
wa
y
f
o
r
ch
r
o
n
ic
d
is
ea
s
es,
ac
ad
e
m
ic
p
r
o
b
le
m
s
,
an
d
r
ed
u
ce
d
p
r
o
d
u
ctiv
ity
in
th
e
wo
r
k
p
lace
in
later
life
[
1
3
]
,
[
1
4
]
.
Stu
n
tin
g
h
as
d
ev
astatin
g
lo
n
g
-
ter
m
im
p
licatio
n
s
f
o
r
in
d
iv
id
u
als
an
d
en
tire
co
u
n
tr
ies.
No
t
o
n
ly
d
o
es
s
tu
n
tin
g
im
p
air
co
g
n
itiv
e
p
er
f
o
r
m
an
ce
a
n
d
in
cr
ea
s
e
th
e
r
i
s
k
o
f
m
o
r
tality
in
ch
ild
r
e
n
,
b
u
t
it
also
s
ev
er
ely
af
f
ec
ts
lab
o
r
o
u
t
p
u
t
a
n
d
im
p
e
d
es
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
p
r
o
g
r
ess
[
1
3
]
,
[
1
5
]
.
No
t
to
m
en
tio
n
th
at
s
tu
n
t
in
g
p
r
o
d
u
ce
s
s
ales
lo
s
s
es
in
th
e
p
r
iv
ate
s
ec
to
r
,
w
h
ich
ac
cr
u
e
b
etwe
en
0
.
0
1
%
an
d
1
.
2
%
o
f
n
atio
n
al
g
r
o
s
s
d
o
m
e
s
tic
p
r
o
d
u
ct
(
GDP)
in
all
n
atio
n
s
,
esp
ec
ially
in
co
u
n
tr
ies
in
th
e
L
atin
Am
er
ican
,
C
ar
ib
b
ea
n
,
E
ast
Asi
a,
an
d
Pa
cif
ic
r
eg
io
n
s
,
wh
ich
ex
p
er
ien
ce
th
e
m
o
s
t
s
ig
n
if
ican
t
lo
s
s
es
[
1
6
]
.
Me
an
wh
ile,
p
ast
r
esear
ch
in
d
icate
s
th
e
f
in
a
n
ci
al
lo
s
s
es
ca
u
s
ed
b
y
s
tu
n
tin
g
in
I
n
d
o
n
esia.
Stu
n
tin
g
co
s
t
th
e
co
u
n
tr
y
0
.
0
4
-
0
.
1
6
%
o
f
GDP
in
2
0
1
3
,
tr
an
s
la
tin
g
to
a
d
if
f
er
en
ce
b
etwe
en
I
DR
3
,
0
5
7
b
illi
o
n
an
d
I
DR
1
3
,
7
5
8
b
illi
o
n
.
T
h
is
e
s
t
im
a
te
u
n
d
er
s
co
r
e
s
th
e
m
ag
n
it
u
d
e
o
f
th
e
f
in
a
n
c
ia
l
lo
s
s
c
au
s
ed
b
y
s
tu
n
t
in
g
,
r
ep
r
es
en
t
in
g
wa
s
ted
d
ev
elo
p
m
en
t
in
v
es
tm
en
t
s
an
d
o
p
p
o
r
tu
n
i
ti
es
[
1
7
]
.
An
e
ar
l
ie
r
s
t
u
d
y
p
a
in
t
ed
an
ev
en
b
l
ea
k
er
p
i
ctu
r
e,
co
m
p
o
u
n
d
in
g
th
e
s
e
co
n
c
er
n
s
.
T
h
ey
e
s
ti
m
a
te
th
a
t
b
y
2
0
2
1
,
th
e
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
lo
s
s
d
u
e
to
s
tu
n
tin
g
in
I
n
d
o
n
es
ia
w
i
ll
in
cr
e
as
e
to
b
et
we
en
0
.
8
9
%
an
d
3
.
9
9
%
o
f
it
s
G
DP
.
T
h
i
s
wo
r
r
y
in
g
r
i
s
e
em
p
h
a
s
i
ze
s
th
e
cr
u
c
ial
n
ee
d
f
o
r
ef
f
ec
tiv
e
in
t
er
v
en
tio
n
s
to
s
o
lv
e
th
e
i
s
s
u
e
an
d
u
n
lo
ck
th
e
f
u
l
l
p
o
ten
ti
al
o
f
th
e
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
an
wo
r
k
f
o
r
ce
.
Mo
r
e
wo
r
r
y
in
g
t
h
an
th
e
m
a
cr
o
e
co
n
o
m
ic
p
i
ct
u
r
e
i
s
th
e
p
er
s
o
n
a
l
im
p
a
ct
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
.
Ad
u
lt
s
s
t
u
n
ted
as
ch
i
ld
r
en
h
av
e
2
0
%
lo
w
er
e
ar
n
in
g
p
o
t
en
t
ia
l
th
a
n
th
e
ir
n
o
n
-
s
tu
n
t
ed
p
ee
r
s
.
T
h
i
s
g
ap
u
n
d
er
s
co
r
e
s
t
h
e
lo
n
g
-
ter
m
ef
f
e
ct
o
f
s
t
u
n
t
in
g
,
wh
i
ch
im
p
ed
e
s
in
d
iv
id
u
a
l
s
'
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
m
o
b
il
ity
an
d
co
n
tr
ib
u
t
e
s
to
i
n
co
m
e
in
e
q
u
al
ity
in
s
o
ci
et
y
[
1
8
]
.
C
h
ild
s
tu
n
tin
g
is
m
o
r
e
th
an
ju
s
t
h
u
n
g
er
;
it
is
a
co
m
p
lex
p
r
o
b
le
m
ca
u
s
ed
b
y
m
u
ltip
le
ca
u
s
es
ac
r
o
s
s
m
u
ltip
le
s
ec
to
r
s
[
1
8
]
.
T
h
e
W
HO
Stu
n
tin
g
Fra
m
ewo
r
k
an
d
th
e
C
o
n
ce
p
tu
al
Fra
m
ewo
r
k
o
n
th
e
Dete
r
m
in
an
ts
o
f
Ma
ter
n
al
an
d
C
h
ild
Nu
tr
itio
n
ar
e
ex
am
p
les
o
f
f
r
am
ewo
r
k
s
[
1
9
]
th
at
illu
s
tr
ate
th
is
co
m
p
le
x
r
ea
lity
.
Acc
o
r
d
in
g
to
th
e
r
es
ea
r
ch
,
m
aln
u
tr
itio
n
at
an
ea
r
l
y
a
g
e,
r
ec
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
is
ea
s
es,
in
ad
eq
u
ate
s
an
itatio
n
,
an
d
s
o
cio
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
in
eq
u
alities
ar
e
th
e
lead
in
g
c
au
s
es
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
.
C
h
ild
r
en
with
in
s
u
f
f
icien
t
d
iets
ar
e
twice
as
lik
ely
to
b
e
s
tu
n
ted
th
an
th
o
s
e
with
n
u
tr
iti
o
u
s
d
iets
[
2
0
]
.
C
h
i
ld
r
en
w
h
o
h
av
e
a
p
o
o
r
d
iet
ar
e
th
r
ee
tim
es
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
b
e
s
tu
n
ted
th
an
ch
ild
r
en
wh
o
ea
t
well
[
2
1
]
.
Mo
th
er
s
with
a
p
r
im
ar
y
ed
u
ca
tio
n
ar
e
1
.
5
tim
es
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
g
iv
e
b
ir
th
to
a
s
tu
n
te
d
k
id
th
a
n
m
o
t
h
er
s
with
a
co
lleg
e/u
n
i
v
er
s
ity
ed
u
ca
tio
n
[
2
2
]
.
D
i
e
t
a
r
y
h
a
b
i
t
s
,
n
e
wb
o
r
n
w
e
i
g
h
t
,
h
i
s
t
o
r
y
o
f
in
f
ec
t
i
o
n
,
an
d
i
n
f
an
t
g
en
d
er
a
r
e
r
i
s
k
f
ac
t
o
r
s
f
o
r
s
t
u
n
t
i
n
g
,
w
h
i
le
p
ar
e
n
t
a
l
w
ea
l
t
h
a
n
d
e
d
u
c
a
t
io
n
l
e
v
e
l
a
r
e
c
o
v
a
r
i
a
te
s
[
2
3
]
.
T
h
is
s
t
u
d
y
e
x
a
m
i
n
e
s
t
h
e
i
n
c
i
d
en
c
e
o
f
s
t
u
n
t
i
n
g
,
wh
i
c
h
i
s
m
o
r
e
p
r
ev
a
l
en
t
a
m
o
n
g
p
o
o
r
h
o
u
s
eh
o
ld
s
i
n
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
a.
T
h
i
s
s
t
u
d
y
i
s
m
o
r
e
f
o
cu
s
e
d
o
n
l
o
o
k
in
g
a
t
f
a
c
to
r
s
th
a
t
c
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
e
s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
an
t
l
y
w
i
t
h
s
t
u
n
t
i
n
g
a
m
o
n
g
p
o
o
r
h
o
u
s
e
h
o
ld
s
in
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
a
.
T
h
e
b
e
n
e
f
i
t
s
o
f
th
i
s
r
e
s
e
a
r
ch
a
r
e
ex
p
e
c
te
d
t
o
b
ec
o
m
e
i
n
p
u
t
an
d
co
n
s
id
e
r
a
t
io
n
f
o
r
t
h
e
g
o
v
e
r
n
m
en
t
t
o
ex
p
an
d
p
r
o
g
r
am
s
f
o
cu
s
e
d
o
n
l
o
w
-
i
n
c
o
m
e
f
a
m
i
l
ie
s
in
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
a
to
im
p
r
o
v
e
p
e
o
p
l
e
's
l
i
v
e
s
a
n
d
r
e
d
u
c
e
t
h
e
f
a
c
t
o
r
s
t
h
a
t
ca
u
s
e
s
t
u
n
t
in
g
th
a
t
o
c
cu
r
i
n
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
a.
T
h
i
s
s
t
u
d
y
f
o
c
u
s
e
s
o
n
t
h
e
f
ac
t
o
r
s
t
h
a
t
co
n
tr
i
b
u
t
e
t
o
s
t
u
n
t
in
g
in
ch
i
l
d
r
e
n
u
n
d
e
r
f
iv
e
i
n
l
o
w
-
i
n
co
m
e
h
o
m
e
s
i
n
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
a
.
2.
ME
T
H
O
D
T
h
is
s
tu
d
y
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n
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esian
s
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I
n
SS
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,
wea
lth
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u
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e
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eter
m
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ed
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y
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ip
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er
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th
e
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y
also
u
s
ed
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ar
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s
o
b
jects
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in
c
lu
d
in
g
telev
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s
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b
icy
cles,
a
n
d
v
eh
icles,
in
ad
d
itio
n
to
th
eir
p
r
o
p
e
r
ties
.
T
h
e
co
n
s
tr
u
ctio
n
m
ate
r
ial
o
f
th
e
m
ain
f
lo
o
r
,
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ilet
f
ac
ilit
ies,
an
d
d
r
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k
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g
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r
s
o
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r
ce
wer
e
al
s
o
co
n
s
id
er
ed
i
n
th
e
ev
alu
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.
T
h
e
p
o
ll u
s
ed
p
r
i
n
cip
al
co
m
p
o
n
en
t
an
aly
s
is
t
o
c
alcu
late
s
co
r
es.
T
h
e
s
u
r
v
ey
u
s
ed
h
o
u
s
eh
o
ld
s
co
r
es
f
o
r
ea
ch
h
o
u
s
eh
o
ld
m
em
b
er
to
co
n
s
tr
u
ct
n
atio
n
al
wea
lth
q
u
in
tiles
,
th
en
d
iv
i
d
ed
th
em
in
t
o
f
iv
e
e
q
u
al
g
r
o
u
p
s
r
ep
r
esen
tin
g
2
0
%
o
f
th
e
p
o
p
u
l
atio
n
.
T
h
e
s
tu
d
y
class
if
ied
th
e
wea
lth
s
tatu
s
g
r
o
u
p
s
as
Qu
in
t
ile
1
if
t
h
e
p
o
o
r
est
2
0
%
o
f
th
e
p
o
p
u
latio
n
(
p
o
o
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est);
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in
tile
2
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th
e
p
o
o
r
a
n
d
v
u
ln
er
ab
le
2
0
%
o
f
th
e
p
o
p
u
latio
n
(
p
o
o
r
er
)
;
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in
tile
3
if
th
e
m
o
d
e
r
ate
s
p
e
n
d
in
g
2
0
%
o
f
th
e
p
o
p
u
latio
n
(
m
id
d
le)
;
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in
tile
4
,
if
th
e
u
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p
er
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id
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le
s
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en
d
i
n
g
2
0
%
o
f
th
e
p
o
p
u
latio
n
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r
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r
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,
an
d
Qu
in
tile
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if
th
e
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f
th
e
p
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(
m
o
s
t
af
f
lu
en
t)
.
I
n
th
is
s
tu
d
y
,
we
class
if
y
h
o
u
s
eh
o
ld
s
in
q
u
in
tiles
1
an
d
2
as p
o
o
r
h
o
u
s
eh
o
ld
s
.
Stu
n
tin
g
is
th
e
d
ep
en
d
en
t
v
ar
i
ab
le
in
th
is
s
tu
d
y
,
as
e
v
id
en
ce
d
b
y
th
e
f
in
d
in
g
s
o
f
a
c
o
m
p
ar
i
s
o
n
o
f
ag
e
an
d
h
eig
h
t
th
r
o
u
g
h
o
u
t
tim
e
.
W
e
in
v
esti
g
ated
n
in
e
i
n
d
ep
en
d
en
t
ch
ar
ac
ter
is
tics
:
ch
ild
ag
e,
g
en
d
er
,
ea
r
ly
in
itiatio
n
o
f
b
r
ea
s
tf
ee
d
in
g
(
E
I
B
F),
an
ten
atal
ca
r
e
(
ANC),
m
ar
ital
s
tatu
s
,
em
p
lo
y
m
en
t
s
t
atu
s
,
m
o
th
er
'
s
ag
e,
ed
u
ca
tio
n
lev
el,
a
n
d
ty
p
e
o
f
r
esid
en
ce
.
T
h
e
s
u
r
v
e
y
d
iv
id
e
d
r
esid
en
ce
s
in
to
two
ca
teg
o
r
ie
s
:
u
r
b
an
an
d
r
u
r
al.
W
e
u
s
ed
I
n
d
o
n
esian
s
tatis
tical
d
ata
to
d
eter
m
in
e
th
e
d
i
v
is
io
n
o
f
u
r
b
a
n
an
d
r
u
r
al
ar
ea
s
.
First,
a
C
h
i
-
s
q
u
ar
e
test
was
co
n
d
u
cte
d
.
T
h
is
s
tu
d
y
u
s
ed
th
e
lin
ea
r
ity
test
to
d
eter
m
in
e
th
e
s
ig
n
if
ican
ce
o
f
th
e
ass
o
ciatio
n
b
etwe
en
in
d
ep
en
d
en
t v
ar
ia
b
les,
f
o
llo
w
ed
b
y
a
b
in
ar
y
lo
g
is
tic
test
wit
h
SP
SS
2
6
s
o
f
twar
e.
W
e
also
cr
ea
ted
a
m
ap
o
f
th
e
d
is
tr
ib
u
tio
n
o
f
s
tu
n
ted
ch
ild
r
en
f
r
o
m
lo
w
-
in
co
m
e
f
am
ilies
b
y
p
r
o
v
in
ce
in
I
n
d
o
n
esia
u
s
in
g
Ar
cGI
S
1
0
.
3
.
Statis
t
ics
I
n
d
o
n
es
ia
d
o
n
ated
a
s
h
ap
ef
ile
th
at
in
clu
d
es
ad
m
in
is
tr
ativ
e
b
o
u
n
d
ar
y
p
o
ly
g
o
n
s
f
o
r
th
is
in
v
esti
g
atio
n
.
T
h
e
Natio
n
al
E
th
ics
C
o
m
m
is
s
io
n
'
s
"n
o
tific
atio
n
letter
"
in
d
icate
s
th
at
th
e
2
0
2
2
I
n
d
o
n
esian
Nu
tr
itio
n
Statu
s
Su
r
v
ey
is
an
"e
x
em
p
t".
T
h
e
I
n
d
o
n
esian
Min
is
tr
y
o
f
Hea
lt
h
u
s
ed
a
s
ig
n
ed
n
o
tific
atio
n
letter
to
g
ath
er
d
ata
f
o
r
th
e
2
0
2
2
I
n
d
o
n
esia
Natio
n
al
Nu
tr
itio
n
Statu
s
Su
r
v
ey
.
Par
ticip
an
ts
s
ig
n
ed
a
co
n
s
en
t
d
o
c
u
m
en
t
to
h
ig
h
lig
h
tin
g
th
e
d
ata
co
llectio
n
was
v
o
l
u
n
tar
y
an
d
t
h
at
th
e
p
r
iv
ate
I
n
d
o
n
esian
Min
is
tr
y
o
f
Hea
lth
s
h
ar
ed
t
h
e
f
o
llo
win
g
in
f
o
r
m
atio
n
with
ac
ad
em
ics v
i
a
th
e
i
n
ter
n
et:
h
ttp
s
://l
ay
an
an
d
ata.
k
em
k
es.g
o
.
i
d
/
.
3.
RE
SU
L
T
S AN
D
D
I
SCU
SS
I
O
N
3
.
1
.
Resul
t
s
T
h
ese
s
tatis
tic
s
s
u
g
g
est
th
at
2
4
.
8
%
o
f
t
h
e
ch
ild
r
en
u
n
d
e
r
f
iv
e
in
lo
w
-
in
co
m
e
h
o
m
es
ar
e
s
tu
n
ted
.
Fig
u
r
e
1
d
ep
icts
th
e
d
is
tr
ib
u
tio
n
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
am
o
n
g
im
p
o
v
er
is
h
ed
f
am
ilies
in
I
n
d
o
n
esi
a.
As
illu
s
tr
ated
in
Fig
u
r
e
1
,
s
tu
n
tin
g
ap
p
ea
r
s
to
b
e
m
o
r
e
p
r
ev
alen
t in
ea
s
ter
n
I
n
d
o
n
esia.
T
ab
le
1
p
r
o
v
id
es
a
d
escr
ip
tiv
e
s
tatis
t
ical
s
u
m
m
ar
y
o
f
th
e
n
u
t
r
itio
n
al
s
tatu
s
o
f
to
d
d
ler
s
in
lo
w
-
in
co
m
e
I
n
d
o
n
esian
h
o
u
s
eh
o
ld
s
.
Acc
o
r
d
in
g
t
o
T
ab
le
1
,
s
tu
n
tin
g
in
to
d
d
ler
s
is
m
o
r
e
p
r
ev
ale
n
t
in
r
u
r
al
a
r
ea
s
th
an
in
m
etr
o
p
o
litan
ar
ea
s
.
Stu
n
tin
g
in
to
d
d
ler
s
is
also
g
r
ea
tly
af
f
ec
ted
b
y
m
ater
n
al
a
g
e,
with
wo
m
en
o
v
er
4
5
y
ea
r
s
o
f
ag
e
h
av
in
g
a
h
ig
h
e
r
p
r
ev
ale
n
ce
.
Mo
th
er
s
with
lo
w
lev
els
o
f
ed
u
ca
tio
n
ar
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
p
r
o
d
u
ce
s
tu
n
ted
ch
ild
r
en
,
as
ar
e
d
iv
o
r
ce
d
o
r
wid
o
wed
m
o
th
er
s
.
C
h
ild
r
e
n
o
f
u
n
em
p
l
o
y
ed
m
o
t
h
er
s
ar
e
s
tu
n
ted
at
a
r
ate
o
f
r
o
u
g
h
ly
2
4
.
8
%.
Stu
n
tin
g
is
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
in
c
h
ild
r
en
u
n
d
er
t
h
e
ag
e
o
f
f
iv
e
am
o
n
g
m
o
m
s
wh
o
d
id
n
o
t
r
ec
eiv
e
ANC
tr
ea
tm
en
t,
b
y
ab
o
u
t
2
8
.
6
%,
th
an
in
m
o
th
er
s
wh
o
h
ad
ANC
s
er
v
ices
d
u
r
in
g
p
r
eg
n
a
n
cy
.
Me
an
wh
ile,
th
e
r
atio
o
f
s
tu
n
ted
ch
ild
r
en
was
h
ig
h
est
at
2
4
-
3
5
m
o
n
th
s
o
f
a
g
e.
I
n
co
n
tr
ast,
b
o
y
s
ar
e
m
o
r
e
p
r
o
n
e
th
an
g
i
r
ls
to
b
e
s
tu
n
ted
.
Fu
r
th
e
r
m
o
r
e
,
ch
i
ld
r
e
n
lack
in
g
E
I
B
F
h
a
v
e
a
lar
g
er
p
r
o
p
o
r
tio
n
o
f
s
tu
n
ted
ch
ild
r
en
co
m
p
a
r
ed
t
o
th
o
s
e
with
E
I
B
F.
T
h
e
co
r
r
elatio
n
test
f
in
d
i
n
g
s
f
o
r
th
e
q
u
esti
o
n
s
in
T
ab
le
1
s
h
o
w
th
at
t
h
e
in
d
ep
en
d
en
t
v
ar
ia
b
les
ar
e
n
o
t
co
llin
ea
r
,
with
an
av
er
a
g
e
s
ig
n
if
ican
t
to
ler
an
ce
o
f
m
o
r
e
th
a
n
0
.
1
0
an
d
a
v
ar
ian
ce
in
f
latio
n
v
alu
e
o
f
less
th
an
1
0
.
0
0
.
T
h
e
s
tu
d
y
f
o
u
n
d
n
o
s
ig
n
if
ican
t
r
elatio
n
s
h
ip
b
etw
ee
n
two
o
r
m
o
r
e
in
d
ep
e
n
d
e
n
t
v
ar
iab
les
in
th
e
r
eg
r
ess
io
n
m
o
d
el
u
s
in
g
th
e
m
u
ltico
llin
ea
r
ity
test
as
a
d
ec
is
io
n
-
m
ak
i
n
g
to
o
l.
Acc
o
r
d
in
g
to
T
ab
le
2
,
c
h
ild
r
en
u
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Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
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I
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er
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1444
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u
r
e
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r
est
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r
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p
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r
wea
lth
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
I
n
t J Pu
b
lic
Hea
lth
Sci
I
SS
N:
2252
-
8
8
0
6
S
tu
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1445
q
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ler
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T
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if
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p
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at
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astru
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ar
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ay
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tr
ib
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te
to
d
ec
r
ea
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ed
s
tu
n
tin
g
r
ates
[
2
6
]
.
C
h
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r
en
wh
o
s
e
p
ar
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liv
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in
r
u
r
al
ar
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ar
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m
o
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lik
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to
b
e
s
tu
n
ted
th
an
ch
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r
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wh
o
liv
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in
cities.
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h
is
is
d
u
e
to
th
e
lack
o
f
a
co
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p
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d
d
if
f
icu
lty
ac
ce
s
s
in
g
m
ed
ical
f
ac
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[
2
7
]
.
I
m
p
lem
en
tin
g
e
f
f
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tiv
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m
ea
s
u
r
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er
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d
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f
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ity
in
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m
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if
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t
way
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o
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d
m
aln
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tr
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o
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g
in
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als
in
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wer
-
m
id
d
le
-
in
co
m
e
r
u
r
al
ar
ea
s
[
2
8
]
.
Acc
o
r
d
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n
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to
Pre
s
id
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tial
R
eg
u
latio
n
Nu
m
b
er
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2
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f
2
0
2
1
,
s
tu
n
tin
g
is
a
n
atio
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al
h
ea
lth
is
s
u
e
in
I
n
d
o
n
esia.
T
h
is
r
eg
u
latio
n
r
eq
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ir
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th
e
ac
h
iev
em
e
n
t
o
f
f
o
u
r
i
n
d
ic
ato
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s
:
T
h
e
f
ir
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g
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al
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to
im
p
r
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v
e
th
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ed
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n
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v
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o
f
lead
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s
h
ip
at
all
lev
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f
g
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v
er
n
m
e
n
t,
f
r
o
m
m
i
n
is
tr
ies an
d
ag
en
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to
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v
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g
o
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m
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d
lo
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l
g
o
v
e
r
n
m
en
ts
t
o
d
is
tr
icts
,
cities,
an
d
v
illag
es.
T
h
e
s
e
co
n
d
p
u
r
p
o
s
e
is
t
o
im
p
r
o
v
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co
m
m
u
n
icatio
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b
eh
av
io
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c
h
an
g
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d
co
m
m
u
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em
p
o
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r
m
en
t.
T
h
e
th
ir
d
g
o
al
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to
en
h
an
ce
th
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co
o
r
d
in
atio
n
o
f
p
ar
ticu
lar
an
d
s
en
s
itiv
e
in
itiativ
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at
all
l
ev
els
o
f
g
o
v
er
n
m
e
n
t.
T
h
e
f
o
u
r
th
p
u
r
p
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s
e
is
to
p
r
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m
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te
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r
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t
r
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eh
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ld
,
in
d
iv
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d
u
al,
an
d
co
m
m
u
n
ity
lev
els [
2
9
]
.
Mo
th
er
s
wh
o
g
iv
e
b
ir
th
at
an
ea
r
ly
o
r
ad
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ce
d
ag
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ar
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m
o
r
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p
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to
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av
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ch
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r
en
with
a
h
ig
h
r
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k
o
f
s
tu
n
ted
g
r
o
wth
[
2
5
]
,
[
3
0
]
.
Ou
r
r
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lts
s
h
o
wed
th
at
ch
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r
en
b
o
r
n
to
m
o
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s
ag
e
d
4
5
y
ea
r
s
o
r
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l
d
er
at
th
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tim
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f
d
eliv
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s
h
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p
r
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b
a
b
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y
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f
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co
m
p
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r
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to
c
h
ild
r
en
b
o
r
n
to
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m
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.
T
h
is
p
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en
o
m
e
n
o
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th
o
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g
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t
to
b
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to
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im
m
atu
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p
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s
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d
em
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tio
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al
ab
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ex
h
ib
ited
b
y
y
o
u
n
g
m
o
t
h
er
s
[
3
0
]
.
T
h
e
r
is
k
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
in
c
r
ea
s
es
in
m
o
th
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ag
ed
1
9
y
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r
s
an
d
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r
a
d
u
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d
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as
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in
cr
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[
3
1
]
.
A
s
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p
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f
r
o
m
I
n
d
o
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g
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ests
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at
ch
ild
r
en
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in
ch
ild
r
en
u
n
d
er
th
e
a
g
e
o
f
f
i
v
e
[
3
4
]
.
Pre
g
n
an
c
y
at
a
y
o
u
n
g
a
g
e
o
f
ten
o
cc
u
r
s
with
o
u
t
ca
r
ef
u
l
p
lan
n
in
g
,
wh
ich
ca
n
r
esu
lt
in
a
lack
o
f
ap
p
r
o
p
r
iate
an
d
o
p
tim
al
p
r
en
atal
ca
r
e
[
3
2
]
.
I
n
co
n
tr
ast,
o
ld
er
p
r
eg
n
an
cies
ar
e
u
s
u
ally
ac
co
m
p
an
ied
b
y
h
ea
lth
r
is
k
s
,
s
u
ch
as
h
y
p
er
ten
s
io
n
o
r
d
iab
et
es,
wh
ich
ca
n
af
f
ec
t
f
etal
g
r
o
wth
an
d
in
cr
ea
s
e
th
e
r
is
k
o
f
ch
ild
s
tu
n
tin
g
[
2
5
]
.
T
h
i
s
is
s
u
p
p
o
r
ted
b
y
th
e
r
esu
lts
o
f
a
s
tu
d
y
c
o
n
d
u
cted
in
Sam
b
a
s
,
E
ast
Kalim
an
tan
,
wh
ich
in
d
icate
d
th
at
th
e
p
r
ev
a
len
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
was
h
i
g
h
er
in
ch
ild
r
e
n
o
f
wo
m
e
n
with
p
o
o
r
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
s
tatu
s
o
r
p
o
o
r
h
ea
lt
h
co
n
d
itio
n
s
d
u
r
in
g
p
r
e
g
n
an
c
y
[
3
2
]
.
T
h
er
e
is
a
co
r
r
ela
tio
n
b
etwe
e
n
m
o
th
er
s
'
ed
u
ca
tio
n
lev
el
an
d
th
eir
p
r
o
p
en
s
ity
to
en
g
ag
e
with
h
ea
lth
s
er
v
ices
an
d
f
ac
ilit
ies
p
r
o
ac
ti
v
ely
.
Mo
th
e
r
s
with
g
r
ea
ter
le
v
els
o
f
ed
u
ca
ti
o
n
ar
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
u
s
e
v
ar
io
u
s
h
ea
lth
s
er
v
ices a
n
d
in
ter
v
en
tio
n
s
,
s
u
ch
as a
n
ten
atal
ch
ec
k
u
p
s
,
v
ac
cin
es,
an
d
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
ad
v
ice
[
2
6
]
.
Similar
ly
,
th
is
s
tu
d
y
d
is
co
v
er
ed
th
at
c
h
ild
r
en
u
n
d
er
t
h
e
ag
e
o
f
f
iv
e
f
r
o
m
m
o
m
s
with
lo
wer
ed
u
ca
tio
n
lev
els
wer
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
b
e
s
tu
n
ted
th
an
ch
ild
r
en
f
r
o
m
m
o
th
er
s
with
h
ig
h
er
ed
u
ca
tio
n
lev
els.
Fu
r
th
er
m
o
r
e
,
L
ak
s
o
n
o
et
a
l.
[
3
5
]
r
esear
ch
r
ep
ea
ted
ly
r
ev
ea
led
th
at
c
h
ild
r
en
o
f
m
o
th
e
r
s
with
lo
wer
ed
u
ca
tio
n
lev
els
h
ad
a
h
ig
h
er
p
r
ev
alen
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
t
h
an
ch
ild
r
e
n
o
f
m
o
th
er
s
with
h
ig
h
er
ed
u
ca
tio
n
lev
els.
Stu
d
i
es
in
lo
wer
-
m
id
d
le
-
in
co
m
e
co
u
n
t
r
ies
h
av
e
f
o
u
n
d
a
s
tr
o
n
g
lin
k
b
etwe
en
m
ater
n
al
ed
u
ca
tio
n
an
d
s
tu
n
tin
g
r
a
tes.
T
h
ese
f
in
d
in
g
s
in
d
icate
th
at
h
ig
h
ly
ed
u
ca
te
d
m
o
m
s
ar
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
h
av
e
co
m
p
r
e
h
en
s
iv
e
k
n
o
wl
ed
g
e
o
f
n
u
tr
itio
n
,
s
an
itatio
n
,
an
d
ch
ild
h
ea
lth
,
wh
ich
ca
n
s
u
cc
ess
f
u
lly
m
i
n
im
ize
th
e
in
cid
en
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
[
3
6
]
.
Ma
ter
n
al
kn
o
wled
g
e
ca
n
also
in
d
ir
ec
tly
in
f
lu
en
ce
o
th
er
f
ac
to
r
s
,
s
u
ch
as
f
am
ily
in
co
m
e,
ac
ce
s
s
to
h
ea
lth
s
er
v
ices,
an
d
u
n
d
er
s
tan
d
i
n
g
o
f
a
p
p
r
o
p
r
iate
f
ee
d
in
g
p
r
ac
tices,
wh
ich
ca
n
af
f
ec
t
th
e
in
cid
en
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
[
3
7
]
.
T
h
e
r
esu
lts
o
f
s
tu
d
ies
co
n
d
u
cted
in
r
u
r
al
a
r
ea
s
s
h
o
w
th
at
co
m
m
u
n
ity
-
b
a
s
ed
ed
u
ca
tio
n
p
r
o
g
r
am
s
d
esig
n
ed
t
o
tar
g
et
r
u
r
al
m
o
th
er
s
p
r
o
v
e
d
to
b
e
an
ef
f
ec
tiv
e
m
eth
o
d
to
r
ed
u
ce
s
tu
n
tin
g
.
T
h
is
was
a
ttrib
u
ted
to
th
e
p
r
o
g
r
am
p
ar
ticip
a
n
ts
'
im
p
r
o
v
e
d
n
u
t
r
itio
n
k
n
o
wled
g
e
an
d
p
a
r
en
tin
g
p
r
ac
tices
[
3
8
]
.
Mo
th
er
s
with
g
r
ea
ter
lev
el
s
o
f
ed
u
ca
tio
n
ar
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
en
g
ag
e
in
c
o
m
p
ar
ativ
e
d
ec
is
io
n
-
m
a
k
in
g
o
n
h
ea
lth
s
er
v
ice
co
n
s
u
m
p
tio
n
,
i
n
clu
d
in
g
tr
a
d
itio
n
al
an
d
alter
n
ativ
e
tec
h
n
iq
u
es,
to
en
h
an
ce
h
ea
lth
o
u
tc
o
m
es a
m
o
n
g
ch
ild
r
e
n
u
n
d
er
f
iv
e
[
6
]
.
A
m
o
th
er
'
s
m
ar
ital
s
tatu
s
ca
n
im
p
ac
t
h
er
ab
ilit
y
t
o
s
ec
u
r
e
an
d
u
tili
ze
th
e
s
o
cial,
ec
o
n
o
m
ic,
an
d
m
ater
ial
r
eso
u
r
ce
s
n
ee
d
ed
to
p
r
o
v
id
e
a
p
p
r
o
p
r
iate
m
ea
ls
f
o
r
h
er
ch
ild
r
en
[
3
9
]
.
I
n
I
n
d
o
n
es
ia,
m
ar
r
ied
m
o
th
er
s
ar
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
t
o
en
g
ag
e
i
n
ex
clu
s
iv
e
b
r
ea
s
tf
ee
d
in
g
(
E
B
F)
co
m
p
ar
e
d
to
d
iv
o
r
ce
d
o
r
wid
o
wed
m
o
t
h
er
s
,
wh
ich
co
u
ld
b
e
attr
ib
u
ted
to
t
h
e
in
f
lu
en
ce
o
f
t
h
e
f
ath
e
r
as
a
s
o
u
r
ce
o
f
m
o
tiv
atio
n
an
d
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
f
o
r
th
e
m
o
th
er
,
as
well
a
s
th
e
p
r
o
v
is
io
n
o
f
s
p
o
u
s
al
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
d
u
r
in
g
th
e
f
ir
s
t
1
,
0
0
0
d
ay
s
,
p
r
e
g
n
an
c
y
,
an
d
p
o
s
t
E
B
F
p
er
io
d
.
R
esear
ch
in
Su
b
-
Sah
ar
a
n
A
f
r
ica
h
as
in
d
icate
d
th
at
ch
i
ld
r
en
o
f
u
n
m
ar
r
ied
a
n
d
d
iv
o
r
ce
d
m
o
m
s
a
r
e
d
is
p
r
o
p
o
r
tio
n
ately
af
f
ec
te
d
b
y
s
tu
n
tin
g
d
u
e
t
o
th
e
ab
s
en
c
e
o
f
s
o
cial
an
d
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
th
at
is
m
o
r
e
av
ailab
le
to
th
o
s
e
wh
o
ar
e
m
ar
r
ied
.
I
n
ad
d
itio
n
,
s
tu
d
ies
co
n
d
u
cte
d
in
So
u
th
Asi
a
co
n
s
is
ten
tly
s
h
o
w
th
at
ch
ild
r
en
o
f
m
ar
r
ied
m
o
th
er
s
h
av
e
m
o
r
e
o
p
tim
al
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
o
u
tco
m
es
an
d
s
ig
n
if
ican
tly
lo
wer
in
cid
en
ce
s
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
th
an
th
o
s
e
o
f
u
n
m
ar
r
i
ed
m
o
th
er
s
d
u
e
to
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
s
tab
ilit
y
an
d
b
etter
ac
ce
s
s
to
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
[
3
9
]
.
Stu
d
ies
co
n
d
u
cte
d
ac
r
o
s
s
So
u
th
Asi
a
co
n
s
is
ten
tly
s
h
o
w
th
at
ch
ild
r
en
o
f
m
ar
r
ied
m
o
th
e
r
s
ex
h
ib
it
b
etter
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
o
u
tco
m
es,
in
cl
u
d
in
g
r
ed
u
ce
d
in
cid
en
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
,
co
m
p
ar
ed
t
o
ch
ild
r
en
o
f
u
n
m
a
r
r
ied
m
o
th
e
r
s
[
4
0
]
.
E
v
id
en
ce
s
u
g
g
ests
th
at
m
ar
r
ied
m
o
th
er
s
d
e
m
o
n
s
tr
ate
m
o
r
e
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
s
tab
ilit
y
an
d
s
o
cial
s
u
p
p
o
r
t
t
h
an
u
n
m
ar
r
ie
d
m
o
th
er
s
.
Yet,
s
in
g
le
wo
m
en
f
r
e
q
u
en
tly
f
ac
e
h
ig
h
f
in
an
cial
s
tr
ess
,
wh
ich
m
a
y
im
p
air
th
eir
ab
ilit
y
to
p
r
o
v
id
e
o
p
tim
al
d
iets
f
o
r
th
eir
ch
ild
r
en
.
Stu
n
tin
g
is
ca
u
s
ed
b
y
ch
r
o
n
i
c
m
aln
u
tr
itio
n
an
d
m
an
y
co
n
tr
ib
u
tin
g
v
ar
iab
les
th
r
o
u
g
h
o
u
t
th
e
f
ir
s
t
1
,
0
0
0
d
ay
s
,
f
r
o
m
th
e
m
o
th
er
'
s
p
r
eg
n
a
n
cy
to
th
e
ch
ild
'
s
s
ec
o
n
d
y
ea
r
o
f
life
[
4
1
]
.
I
m
p
lem
en
ti
n
g
m
ater
n
al
h
ea
lth
m
o
n
ito
r
in
g
an
d
s
u
p
p
lem
en
tati
o
n
in
itiativ
es
th
r
o
u
g
h
an
te
n
atal
ca
r
e
(
ANC)
ac
tiv
ities
is
e
s
s
e
n
tial
to
r
ed
u
ce
th
is
p
h
en
o
m
en
o
n
.
R
esear
ch
f
in
d
i
n
g
s
s
u
g
g
est
th
at
p
r
e
g
n
an
t
wo
m
en
wh
o
d
o
n
o
t
u
n
d
er
g
o
ANC
ar
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
ex
p
er
ien
ce
co
m
p
licatio
n
s
d
u
r
i
n
g
p
r
eg
n
an
cy
th
an
th
o
s
e
wh
o
d
o
.
A
s
y
s
tem
atic
an
aly
s
is
o
f
r
esear
ch
in
E
th
io
p
ia
r
ev
ea
led
a
s
ig
n
if
ica
n
t
r
ed
u
ctio
n
in
th
e
p
r
ev
ale
n
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
,
esti
m
at
ed
at
r
o
u
g
h
ly
6
.
8
%,
a
m
o
n
g
w
o
m
en
w
h
o
co
n
s
is
ten
tly
u
s
ed
h
ea
lth
s
er
v
i
ce
s
f
o
r
p
r
eg
n
a
n
cy
-
r
elate
d
ca
r
e
[
4
2
]
.
A
s
tu
d
y
b
y
T
italey
et
a
l.
[
4
1
]
s
h
o
wed
a
co
n
s
is
ten
t
co
r
r
elatio
n
b
etwe
e
n
th
e
f
r
eq
u
e
n
cy
o
f
an
ten
atal
ch
ec
k
-
u
p
s
,
with
a
m
in
im
u
m
o
f
f
o
u
r
v
is
its
,
an
d
av
o
id
an
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
ted
lab
o
r
.
M
o
th
er
s
wh
o
r
ec
eiv
e
a
d
eq
u
ate
ANC
ar
e
les
s
lik
ely
to
h
av
e
s
tu
n
ted
ch
ild
r
e
n
d
u
e
to
im
p
r
o
v
e
d
m
ater
n
al
h
ea
lth
m
o
n
ito
r
i
n
g
an
d
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
in
ter
v
en
tio
n
s
d
u
r
i
n
g
p
r
e
g
n
an
c
y
[
4
3
]
.
I
n
ad
d
itio
n
,
ANC
em
p
h
asizes
im
p
r
o
v
in
g
t
h
e
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
p
r
o
f
ile
o
f
p
r
eg
n
an
t
wo
m
en
,
p
r
im
a
r
ily
th
r
o
u
g
h
s
u
p
p
lem
en
tatio
n
,
wh
ich
ca
n
r
ed
u
ce
th
e
lik
elih
o
o
d
o
f
in
f
a
n
t stu
n
tin
g
[
4
4
]
.
Ma
t
er
n
al
an
d
ch
ild
h
ea
lth
m
o
n
ito
r
in
g
is
a
p
r
o
ce
s
s
th
at
g
o
es
b
ey
o
n
d
p
r
en
atal
c
h
ec
k
-
u
p
s
to
in
clu
d
e
p
o
s
tn
atal
ca
r
e.
T
h
is
co
n
tin
u
u
m
o
f
ca
r
e
c
an
b
e
attr
ib
u
ted
to
ad
eq
u
ate
atten
d
a
n
ce
d
u
r
in
g
p
r
eg
n
an
cy
f
o
r
ANC,
an
im
p
o
r
ta
n
t
asp
ec
t
o
f
m
ater
n
al
an
d
c
h
ild
h
ea
lth
.
Mo
t
h
er
s
wh
o
d
o
n
o
t a
cc
ess
ANC
ar
e
less
lik
ely
to
h
av
e
co
m
p
r
eh
e
n
s
iv
e
k
n
o
wled
g
e
ab
o
u
t c
h
ild
ca
r
e
[
4
1
]
.
T
h
e
y
o
u
n
g
er
a
ch
ild
is
,
th
e
g
r
ea
ter
th
eir
s
u
s
ce
p
tib
ilit
y
to
s
tu
n
tin
g
,
wh
ich
r
esu
lts
f
r
o
m
h
ig
h
e
r
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
r
eq
u
ir
e
m
en
ts
an
d
g
r
ea
ter
s
u
s
ce
p
tib
ilit
y
t
o
in
f
ec
tio
u
s
d
is
ea
s
es
[
1
8
]
,
[
4
5
]
.
I
t
is
co
m
m
o
n
ly
k
n
o
wn
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8
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6
S
tu
n
tin
g
a
mo
n
g
to
d
d
lers
in
p
o
o
r
I
n
d
o
n
esia
n
h
o
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s
eh
o
ld
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(
S
a
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a
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A
llo
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ela
)
1447
th
at
ch
ild
r
e
n
u
n
d
er
two
ar
e
m
o
r
e
s
en
s
itiv
e
to
s
tu
n
tin
g
.
T
h
is
is
an
im
p
o
r
tan
t
er
a
f
o
r
g
r
o
wth
an
d
d
e
v
elo
p
m
e
n
t;
th
u
s
,
p
r
o
p
e
r
n
u
tr
itio
n
is
n
ec
ess
ar
y
.
Pre
v
io
u
s
r
esear
ch
h
as
r
e
p
ea
ted
ly
d
em
o
n
s
tr
ated
th
at
to
d
d
ler
s
,
r
eg
ar
d
less
o
f
th
eir
ag
e,
h
a
v
e
a
h
ig
h
er
r
is
k
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
th
an
i
n
f
an
ts
ag
ed
0
-
1
1
m
o
n
th
s
[
4
6
].
T
h
e
p
r
ev
alen
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
ten
d
s
to
in
cr
ea
s
e
with
ag
e
u
p
to
two
y
ea
r
s
,
af
ter
wh
ich
it
ten
d
s
to
d
ec
r
ea
s
e
[
4
7
]
.
Nu
tr
itio
n
an
d
h
ea
lth
in
ter
v
en
tio
n
s
ar
e
m
o
s
t
ef
f
ec
tiv
e
f
o
r
p
r
ev
e
n
tin
g
s
tu
n
tin
g
d
u
r
in
g
to
d
d
ler
h
o
o
d
.
A
r
ec
e
n
t
m
eta
-
a
n
aly
s
is
r
ev
ea
led
th
at
s
u
ch
in
ter
v
en
tio
n
s
,
in
clu
d
in
g
n
u
tr
it
io
n
al
s
u
p
p
lem
en
tatio
n
a
n
d
m
a
ter
n
al
ed
u
ca
tio
n
,
a
r
e
cr
u
cial
i
n
r
ed
u
cin
g
th
e
r
is
k
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
d
u
r
in
g
th
is
ag
e
[
4
7
]
.
Gen
d
er
-
s
p
ec
if
ic
f
ac
to
r
s
i
n
f
lu
e
n
ce
th
e
in
cid
e
n
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
t
in
g
.
R
esear
ch
co
n
d
u
cted
i
n
E
th
i
o
p
ia
s
h
o
wed
th
at
b
o
y
s
'
an
d
g
ir
ls
'
s
u
s
ce
p
tib
ilit
y
to
s
tu
n
tin
g
is
d
if
f
er
e
n
t
[
4
8
]
.
Sp
ec
if
ically
,
it
was
d
is
co
v
er
ed
th
at
b
o
y
s
ar
e
m
o
r
e
s
en
s
itiv
e
to
s
tu
n
tin
g
th
an
g
ir
ls
.
W
h
en
it
co
m
es
to
ch
il
d
r
en
u
n
d
er
th
e
ag
e
o
f
f
iv
e
,
b
o
y
s
ar
e
m
o
r
e
lik
ely
to
b
e
s
tu
n
ted
th
an
g
ir
ls
,
ac
co
r
d
in
g
to
r
esear
ch
.
B
o
y
s
ar
e
b
e
liev
ed
to
b
e
m
o
r
e
s
en
s
itiv
e
to
m
an
y
illn
ess
es,
in
clu
d
in
g
in
f
ec
tio
n
s
,
wh
ich
ca
n
im
p
air
n
o
r
m
al
g
r
o
wth
an
d
d
ev
el
o
p
m
en
t.
I
n
ad
d
itio
n
,
ep
id
em
io
l
o
g
ical
ev
id
en
ce
s
u
g
g
ests
th
at
b
o
y
s
ten
d
to
ex
p
e
r
ien
ce
m
o
r
e
s
i
g
n
if
ican
t
m
o
r
b
id
ity
d
u
e
to
i
n
h
er
en
t
b
io
l
o
g
ical
d
if
f
er
en
ce
s
b
etwe
en
th
e
s
ex
es
[
4
1
]
.
A
liter
atu
r
e
s
tu
d
y
f
r
o
m
So
u
th
Asi
a
f
o
u
n
d
th
at
in
s
o
m
e
co
u
n
tr
ies,
g
ir
ls
ar
e
at
h
ig
h
er
r
is
k
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
th
a
n
b
o
y
s
.
T
h
is
d
if
f
er
en
ce
is
d
u
e
to
th
e
cu
ltu
r
al
p
r
ef
er
e
n
ce
to
allo
ca
te
f
am
ily
r
eso
u
r
ce
s
to
b
o
y
s
[
3
7
]
.
A
m
et
a
-
an
aly
s
is
o
f
s
u
b
-
Sah
ar
an
r
esear
ch
in
d
icate
d
s
ig
n
if
ican
t
v
ar
i
an
ce
am
o
n
g
n
atio
n
s
in
th
e
p
r
ev
alen
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
ted
g
r
o
wth
am
o
n
g
b
o
y
s
an
d
g
ir
l
s
.
A
s
y
n
th
esis
o
f
th
e
f
in
d
in
g
s
s
u
g
g
ests
th
at
th
e
u
n
d
er
ly
i
n
g
ca
u
s
es
o
f
th
is
v
ar
i
atio
n
in
clu
d
e
d
is
p
ar
ities
in
ac
ce
s
s
to
h
ea
lth
an
d
e
d
u
ca
tio
n
s
er
v
ices,
wh
ich
in
tu
r
n
r
esu
lt
f
r
o
m
g
en
d
e
r
in
eq
u
a
lity
[
4
9
]
.
A
p
ar
allel
s
tu
d
y
co
n
d
u
cted
in
So
u
th
Asi
a
r
ev
ea
led
th
at
g
ir
ls
ar
e
m
o
r
e
p
r
o
n
e
to
s
tu
n
tin
g
th
a
n
b
o
y
s
.
T
h
is
p
h
en
o
m
en
o
n
is
d
u
e
to
a
c
o
m
b
in
atio
n
o
f
cu
ltu
r
al
n
o
r
m
s
th
at
f
av
o
r
b
o
y
s
’
an
d
g
ir
ls
'
lim
ited
ac
ce
s
s
to
ad
eq
u
ate
n
u
tr
itio
n
al
r
eso
u
r
ce
s
[
5
0
]
.
I
n
m
o
s
t
ca
s
es,
b
o
y
s
ar
e
m
o
r
e
v
u
ln
er
a
b
le
to
th
e
ad
v
er
s
e
ef
f
ec
ts
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
,
a
p
h
en
o
m
en
o
n
s
h
ap
ed
b
y
a
c
o
m
p
lex
in
ter
ac
tio
n
b
etwe
en
s
o
cio
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
a
n
d
cu
ltu
r
al
f
ac
to
r
s
.
I
t
is
wid
ely
r
ec
o
g
n
ize
d
th
at
e
ar
ly
in
itiatio
n
o
f
b
r
ea
s
tf
ee
d
in
g
(
I
MD
)
is
an
im
p
o
r
tan
t
d
ete
r
m
in
an
t
o
f
s
u
cc
ess
f
u
l e
x
clu
s
iv
e
b
r
ea
s
tf
ee
d
in
g
an
d
o
v
e
r
all
in
f
an
t
h
ea
lth
[
5
1
]
.
Fin
d
in
g
s
f
r
o
m
o
u
r
in
v
est
ig
atio
n
s
h
o
wed
th
at
th
er
e
was
n
o
clea
r
ass
o
ciatio
n
b
etwe
en
I
MD
an
d
th
e
o
cc
u
r
r
en
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
am
o
n
g
p
e
d
iatr
ic
p
atien
ts
.
T
h
is
co
n
clu
s
io
n
d
if
f
er
s
s
lig
h
tly
f
r
o
m
ea
r
lier
r
esear
ch
s
tu
d
ies
th
at
f
o
u
n
d
th
at
I
MD
m
ay
b
e
co
n
n
ec
ted
with
th
e
d
ev
elo
p
m
e
n
t
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
in
ch
ild
r
en
u
n
d
er
t
h
e
ag
e
o
f
f
i
v
e
[
5
2
]
.
A
So
u
th
Asi
an
s
tu
d
y
f
o
u
n
d
t
h
at
I
MD
d
r
am
atica
lly
lo
wer
ed
t
h
e
in
ci
d
en
ce
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
am
o
n
g
ch
il
d
r
en
in
t
h
e
r
eg
i
o
n
[
5
3
]
.
A
r
e
d
u
ce
d
lik
elih
o
o
d
o
f
s
tu
n
tin
g
was
o
b
s
er
v
ed
in
c
h
ild
r
en
wh
o
h
ad
r
ec
eiv
ed
I
MD
.
Oth
er
f
ac
to
r
s
,
s
u
ch
as
m
ater
n
al
ed
u
ca
tio
n
an
d
th
e
av
ailab
ilit
y
o
f
h
ea
lth
ca
r
e,
also
in
f
lu
en
ce
d
th
e
o
u
tco
m
e
[
3
3
]
.
L
o
n
g
-
te
r
m
f
ac
to
r
s
m
ay
in
f
lu
en
ce
s
tu
n
tin
g
,
wh
ich
co
u
ld
ex
p
lain
t
h
e
d
is
p
ar
ity
b
etwe
en
th
is
s
tu
d
y
'
s
f
in
d
in
g
s
an
d
t
h
o
s
e
o
f
o
th
er
i
n
v
esti
g
atio
n
s
.
T
h
ese
f
ac
to
r
s
in
clu
d
e
p
o
s
t
-
b
r
ea
s
tf
ee
d
in
g
n
u
tr
ien
t
in
ta
k
e,
u
n
f
av
o
r
a
b
le
en
v
ir
o
n
m
en
tal
c
o
n
d
itio
n
s
,
m
ater
n
al
n
u
t
r
itio
n
al
s
tatu
s
d
u
r
in
g
p
r
e
g
n
an
cy
,
a
n
d
r
ec
u
r
r
en
t in
f
ec
tio
n
s
in
th
e
c
h
ild
.
4.
CO
NCLU
SI
O
N
T
h
e
f
in
d
in
g
s
r
ev
ea
le
d
th
at
th
er
e
ar
e
s
ev
en
v
ar
iab
les
ass
o
ci
ated
with
s
tu
n
tin
g
in
ch
ild
r
en
u
n
d
er
th
e
ag
e
o
f
f
iv
e
in
p
o
o
r
h
o
u
s
eh
o
l
d
s
in
I
n
d
o
n
esia.
T
h
e
s
ev
en
f
ac
to
r
s
ar
e
ch
ild
ag
e,
g
en
d
er
,
m
ar
it
al
s
tatu
s
,
ed
u
ca
tio
n
lev
el,
p
r
en
atal
ca
r
e,
an
d
ty
p
e
o
f
r
esid
en
ce
.
Acc
o
r
d
i
n
g
to
th
e
r
ep
o
r
t,
s
tr
ateg
ies
em
p
h
asizin
g
o
ld
er
m
o
th
e
r
s
an
d
in
s
u
f
f
icien
t
f
o
r
m
al
ed
u
ca
tio
n
s
h
o
u
ld
b
e
p
r
i
o
r
itized
in
r
u
r
al
ar
ea
s
to
elim
in
ate
s
tu
n
tin
g
.
Patien
ts
with
ANC
n
ee
d
co
n
s
tan
t
s
u
p
er
v
is
io
n
f
r
o
m
m
ed
ical
s
p
ec
ialis
t
s
.
Fo
r
h
i
g
h
-
r
is
k
p
o
p
u
latio
n
s
,
em
p
o
wer
m
en
t
p
r
o
g
r
am
s
th
at
p
r
o
v
id
e
r
ele
v
an
t
life
s
k
ills
ar
e
ess
en
tial.
E
m
p
o
wer
m
en
t
p
r
o
g
r
am
s
ca
n
b
e
d
o
n
e
b
y
wo
r
k
in
g
to
g
eth
er
ac
r
o
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[
1
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W
o
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[
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UNI
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Th
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[
3
]
H
.
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7
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T.
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