Indonesian
J
our
nal
of
Electrical
Engineering
and
Computer
Science
V
ol.
39,
No.
3,
September
2025,
pp.
1499
∼
1513
ISSN:
2502-4752,
DOI:
10.11591/ijeecs.v39.i3.pp1499-1513
❒
1499
An
impr
o
v
ed
h
ybrid
A
C
to
DC
con
v
erter
suitable
f
or
electric
v
ehicles
applications
Khaled
A.
Mahafzah
1
,
Mohamad
A.
Obeidat
2
,
Hesham
Alsalem
3
,
A
yman
Mansour
4
,
Eleonora
Ri
v
a
Sanse
v
erino
5
1
Department
of
Electrical
Engineering,
F
aculty
of
Engineering,
Al-Ahliyya
Amman
Uni
v
ersity
,
Amman,
Jordan
2
Department
of
Electrical
and
Mechatronics
Engineering,
F
aculty
of
Engineering,
T
ala
T
echnical
Uni
v
ersity
,
T
ala,
Jordan
3
Department
of
Mechanical
Engineering,
F
aculty
of
Engineering,
T
ala
T
echnical
Uni
v
ersity
,
T
ala,
Jordan
4
Department
of
Computer
and
Communications
Engineering,
F
aculty
of
Engineering,
T
ala
T
echnical
Uni
v
ersity
,
T
ala,
Jordan
5
Department
of
Engineering,
Uni
v
ersity
of
P
alermo,
P
alermo,
Italy
Article
Inf
o
Article
history:
Recei
v
ed
Oct
24,
2024
Re
vised
Apr
17,
2025
Accepted
Jul
3,
2025
K
eyw
ords:
EV
char
ging
Flyback
HVDC
grid
Hybrid
con
v
erter
SEPIC
ABSTRA
CT
This
paper
introduces
a
no
v
el
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
designed
for
v
arious
ap-
plications
lik
e
DC
micro-grids,
electric
v
ehicle
(EV)
setups,
and
the
inte
gration
of
rene
w
able
ener
gy
resources
into
electric
grids.
The
suggested
h
ybrid
con-
v
erter
in
v
olv
es
a
diode
bridge
rectier
,
tw
o
interconnected
single
ended
primary
inductor
con
v
erter
(SEPIC)
and
Flyback
con
v
erters,
and
tw
o
additional
auxiliary
controlled
switches.
These
e
xtra
switches
f
acilitate
switching
between
SEPIC,
Flyback,
or
a
combination
of
both.
The
paper
e
x-tensi
v
ely
discusses
the
oper
-
ational
modes
using
mathematical
equations,
deri
ving
specic
dut
y
c
ycles
for
each
switch
based
on
the
circuit
par
ameters.
This
h
ybrid
con
v
erter
aims
t
o
de-
crease
total
harmonic
distortion
(THD)
in
the
line
current.
The
ndings
e
xhibit
a
THD
of
approximately
14
.
51
%,
sho
wcasing
a
3
%
reduction
compared
to
prior
h
ybrid
con
v
erters,
thereby
enhancing
the
po
wer
f
actor
of
the
line
current.
Fur
-
thermore,
at
rated
load
conditions,
the
proposed
con
v
erter
achie
v
es
90
%
ef
-
cienc
y
.
T
o
v
alidate
the
proposed
h
ybrid
con
v
erter’
s
functionality
,
a
4
.
5
kW
con-
v
erter
is
simulated
and
performed
using
MA
TL
AB/Simulink
after
conguring
the
appropriate
passi
v
e
parameters.
This
is
an
open
access
article
under
the
CC
BY
-SA
license
.
Corresponding
A
uthor:
Khaled
A.
Mahafzah
Department
of
Electrical
Engineering,
F
aculty
of
Engineering,
Al-Ahliyya
Amman
Uni
v
ersity
Amman
19328,
Jordan
Email:
k.mahafzah@ammanu.edu.jo
1.
INTR
ODUCTION
Global
w
arming,
fuel
emissions,
fuel
prices,
and
politics
ha
v
e
mo
v
ed
customers’
attention
to
more
dependable
and
en
vironmentally
benecial
rene
w
able
and
friendly
ener
gy
sources.
W
ith
o
v
er
95
million
cars
sold
each
year
,
the
transportation
sector
contrib
utes
more
than
24
%
of
global
emissions
[1].
California,
Eng-
land,
France,
German
y
,
and
man
y
European
countries
will
ban
selling
con
v
entional
internal
comb
ustion
engine
v
ehicles
starting
from
2035
and
after
.
Recent
technology
impro
v
ements
in
po
wer
electronics
and
the
utilization
of
these
adv
ancement
in
transportation
plays
a
major
role
for
the
wide
spread
of
electric
v
ehicles
(EV)
later
on
[1],
[2].
Demands
of
EVs
increased
rapidly
and
manuf
acturers
started
to
enhance
their
ef
ciencies
and
competencies.
Depending
on
the
source
of
electricity
used
to
char
ge
EV
,
emissions
from
EV
can
decreased
to
up
to
90
%
compared
to
emi
s-
sions
from
ICE.
EV
mainly
consist
of
dif
ferent
components
such
as
the
rechar
geable
battery
,
po
wer
in
v
erters,
J
ournal
homepage:
http://ijeecs.iaescor
e
.com
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1500
❒
ISSN:
2502-4752
electric
traction
motor
,
po
wer
electronics
controller
,
char
ging
port,
and
transmission.
The
rechar
geable
battery
(v
oltages
v
ary
from
200
V
to
450
V)
that
passes
DC
v
oltage
to
the
in
v
erter
.
Po
wer
in
v
erters
changes
the
current
from
DC
current
to
an
A
C
current
[3].
Electric
t
raction
motor
turns
the
transmission
and
the
traction
wheels,
and
the
po
wer
electronics
controller
w
orks
as
a
con
v
erter/in
v
erter
combination.
The
char
ging
port
allo
ws
the
EV
to
be
connecting
to
an
e
xternal
source
to
char
ge
the
traction
battery
pack
whene
v
er
needed.
There
are
four
major
types
of
EVs;
battery
electric
v
ehicle
or
all
electric
v
ehicle
(BEV
or
EV),
h
ybrid
electric
v
ehicle
(HEV),
plug
in
h
ybrid
electric
v
ehicle
(PHEV),
fuel
cell
electric
v
ehicle
(FCEV)
[1]-[3].
EV
is
a
noise
free
v
ehicle,
with
the
most
ef
cient
components
that
o
v
ercome
all
ICEs
[4]-[6].
EVs
can
be
di
vided
into
three
main
subsystems
cate
gories
[1],
[7],
[8].
First,
the
high
v
oltage
circuit
which
includes
the
rechar
geable
battery
between
200
to
800
v
olts,
contractors
which
relay
po
wer
to
motor
which
propel
the
v
ehicle
controlled
by
in
v
erters,
DC
to
DC
con
v
erter
,
on
board
char
ging
unit,
smart
shunt
used
for
battery
managements
and
can
b
us
which
control
po
wer
deli
v
ery
and
implement
performance
and
safety
features.
Second,
lo
w-v
oltage
circuit,
which
is
responsible
for
operating
the
accessory
de
vice
through
rear
PDU-8
which
programmed
to
acti
v
ate
the
in
v
erters
cooling
pump,
tai
llight
blink
ers
and
re
v
erse
light.
Front
PDU-8
controls
the
CAN
k
e
ypad,
digital
dash
display
accurately
.
T
w
o
additional
PDU-8
used
to
acti
v
a
te
the
contractors
for
the
high
v
oltage
systems
and
control
the
headlights.
Third,
multiple
can
netw
orks.
Which
allo
ws
multiple
de
vices
to
share
data
between
the
netw
orks
and
guarantee
an
optimal
and
safe
performance.
In
v
erters
can
be
the
k
e
y
solution
in
the
eld
of
h
ybrids
and
electrical
v
ehicles.
The
motor
in
h
ybrid
and
EVs
utilize
three
phase
v
oltage
source
in
v
erters
(VSI)
based
on
insulated
g
ate
bipolar
transistors
IGBTs
made
of
silicon
carbides
or
g
allium
nitrides
to
turn
on
and
of
f
within
fe
w
mile
or
nano-seconds
[9],
[10].
The
e
xploration
of
a
three-phase
modular
dif
ferential
in
v
erter
(MDI)
inte
grating
single
ended
prim
ary
inductor
con-
v
erter
(SEPIC)
modules
and
SiC
de
vices
is
discussed,
deli
v
eri
ng
A
C
po
wer
to
the
grid
with
enhanced
ef
cienc
y
and
reduced
total
harmonic
distortion
(THD)
through
high-frequenc
y
switching
and
modular
e
xibility
[11].
T
akaoka
et
al.
[12]
introduces
of
an
isolated
DC
to
single-phase
A
C
con
v
erter
that
incorporates
acti
v
e
po
wer
decoupling
using
a
coupled
inductor
and
interlea
v
ed
boost
con
v
erter
,
achie
ving
i
ndependent
control
of
po
wer
con
v
ersion,
an
84
.
5
%
reduction
in
second-order
harmonics,
and
a
maximum
ef
cienc
y
of
94
.
5
%.
Larouci
et
al.
[13]
e
xamines
a
yback
con
v
erter
using
a
mix
ed
conduction
mode,
balancing
ef
cienc
y
and
transformer
v
olume
by
combining
discont
inuous
and
continuous
conduction
modes
within
an
optimized
control
frame-
w
ork,
f
a
v
oring
continuous
conduction
for
ef
cienc
y
and
discontinuous
conduction
to
minimize
component
v
olume.
Collecti
v
ely
,
these
studies
adv
ance
po
wer
con
v
ersion
technologies
by
enhancing
grid-connected
sys-
tem
ef
cienc
y
,
reducing
harmonic
distortions,
and
optimizing
design
approaches
for
impro
v
ed
performance
and
scalability
.
Another
type
of
in
v
erters
is
the
current
source
in
v
erters
(CSI)
with
the
aid
of
a
capacitor
lters
to
re
gu-
late
the
distortion
currents.
Z
source
in
v
erter
(ZSI)
is
an
in
v
erter
that
combine
both
VSI
and
CSI.
The
produced
v
oltage
from
ZSI
is
either
higher
or
lo
wer
than
the
input
v
oltage
source.
Three
le
v
el
in
v
erters
used
in
EV
with
switches
that
are
more
ef
cient
especially
for
m
o
de
rate
to
high
frequenc
y
le
v
els
with
lo
wer
v
oltage
distortion
and
higher
motor
ef
cienc
y
.
Insulated
g
ate
bipolar
transistors
(IGBTs)
is
a
major
part
used
in
in
v
erters
[14]-
[18].
Po
wer
module
as
well
as
g
ate
dri
v
ers
are
responsible
for
the
dynamic
beha
vior
of
the
diodes.
Current
sensor
and
DC
link
capacitor
are
components
used
in
in
v
erters
as
a
means
of
protection
and
better
performance
control
[19].
All
in
v
erters
are
equipped
with
a
thermal
management
system
to
control
T
empera-ture
through
cooling
system
(w
ater
-cooling
or
forced
air
-cooling).
Che
vrolet
MY2016
V
olt
used
traction
po
wer
in
v
erter
module
(TPIM)
with
dual
VSIs
and
wide
bandg
ap
(WBG)
[20].
T
o
yota
MY2016
Prius
used
tw
o
VSIs,
a
boost
con
v
erter
.
Nissan
MY2012
LEAF
used
a
single
VSI.
T
esla
model
S
uses
5
.
8
kg
6
.
4
L,
T
O-247
w
ater
-cooled
in
v
erter
.
Dif
ferent
generations
of
in
v
erter
were
used
by
each
indi
vidual
EV
Automak
er
to
o
v
ercome
short-
comings
from
pre
vious
models
and
ha
v
e
an
impro
v
ed
performance.
Some
EV
and
HEV
has
dif
ferent
types
of
in
v
erters
that
perform
as
an
in
v
erter/con
v
erter
assembly
that
w
orks
as
boost
con
v
erter
,
boost
con
v
erter
module,
and
the
coil
that
produce
the
v
oltage
higher
than
battery
v
oltage.
EVs
and
PHEVs
tend
to
ha
v
e
higher
po
wer
in
v
erters
in
the
range
of
100
–
500
kW
compared
to
the
30
to
60
kW
range
in
HEV
[5],
[21],
[22].
In
response
to
the
demand
for
adv
anced
po
wer
electronics
systems
tailored
specically
for
EVs,
this
paper
introduces
a
cutting-edge
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
,
redening
the
landscape
of
ener
gy
con
v
ersion
tech-
nology
.
Recognizing
the
need
for
a
more
nuanced
focus
on
con
v
erters
within
the
EV
domain,
we
ha
v
e
tailored
our
introduction
to
pro
vide
a
comprehensi
v
e
o
v
ervie
w
of
our
inno
v
ati
v
e
solution,
minimizing
redundant
infor
-
mation
commonly
kno
wn
about
EVs.
The
de
v
eloped
h
ybrid
con
v
erter
,
designed
with
a
primary
dedication
to
EV
applications,
transcends
con
v
entional
boundaries
by
of
fering
a
v
ersatile
solution
for
a
range
of
scenarios.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci,
V
ol.
39,
No.
3,
September
2025:
1499–1513
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci
ISSN:
2502-4752
❒
1501
Be
yond
EVs,
its
applications
e
xtend
to
DC
micro-grids
and
the
seamless
inte
gration
of
rene
w
able
ener
gy
re-
sources
into
electric
grids.
This
adaptability
is
achie
v
ed
through
a
sophist
icated
architecture,
featuring
a
diode
bridge
rectier
,
coupled
SEPIC,
and
yback
con
v
erters.
The
inte
gration
of
tw
o
auxiliary
switches
further
ele-
v
ates
the
con
v
ert-er’
s
e
xibi
lity
,
allo
wing
dynamic
selection
between
SEPIC,
yback,
or
a
h
ybrid
mode
to
suit
di
v
erse
operational
requirements.
This
paper
e
xplores
specic
duty
c
ycles
for
each
switch,
le
v
eraging
mathe-
matical
calculations
grounded
in
circuit
parameters.
This
in-depth
analysis
ensures
optimal
performance
across
v
aried
operational
modes,
emphasizing
the
practical
utility
and
adaptability
of
our
con
v
erter
to
meet
the
unique
demands
of
EV
applications
[23]-[25].
One
study
e
xamines
the
direct
po
wer
control
(DPC)
technique
for
three-phase
PWM
A
C-DC
con
v
er
t-
ers
under
un
ba
lanced
v
oltage
conditions.
It
highlights
ho
w
such
conditions
can
lead
to
signicant
performance
de
gradation
due
to
the
presence
of
ne
g
ati
v
e
v
oltage
components
in
the
grid,
which
adv
ersely
af
fect
the
operation
of
grid-connected
VSIs.
By
modifying
the
con
v
entional
DPC
input
structures
with
simpler
sequence
netw
orks,
the
study
achie
v
ed
a
70
%
impro
v
ement
in
input
po
wer
under
unbalanced
conditions,
measured
through
a
re-
duction
in
THD
[26].
Another
research
paper
e
xtends
this
w
ork
by
emphasizing
the
necessity
of
addressing
symmetrical
components
to
mitig
ate
the
adv
erse
ef
fects
of
unbalanced
v
oltage,
impro
ving
po
wer
quality
and
reducing
THD
[27].
A
dif
ferent
approach
in
v
olv
es
the
analysis
of
virtual
ux
direct
po
wer
control
(VFDPC)
for
A
C-DC
con
v
erters.
This
technique
eliminates
the
need
for
v
oltage
sensors
by
estimating
grid
virtual
ux
based
on
con
v
erter
switching
states,
line
current,
and
DC-link
output
v
oltage.
This
method
not
only
simplies
the
control
system
b
ut
also
achie
v
es
lo
w
harmonic
distortion
(belo
w
5
%)
and
near
unity
po
wer
f
actor
,
making
it
highly
suitable
for
EV
applications
[28].
Additionally
,
another
study
proposes
a
tw
o-stage
bidirectional
A
C-
DC
con
v
erter
utilizing
w
a
v
elet
modulation
for
EV
char
ging
systems.
The
results
demonstrate
a
signicant
reduction
in
output
v
oltage
ripple
and
harmonic
distortion,
enhancing
the
o
v
erall
performance
of
the
char
ging
infrastructure
[28].
The
paramount
objecti
v
e
of
the
proposed
h
ybrid
con
v
erter
is
to
address
the
follo
wing
issues:
−
Inte
grated
SEPIC
and
yback
con
v
erters:
the
combination
allo
ws
the
con
v
erter
to
switch
between
SEPIC
and
yback
modes
or
use
both
simultaneously
.
This
e
xibility
optimizes
performance
under
v
arying
load
conditions,
which
is
not
typically
seen
in
con
v
entional
topologies.
−
Auxiliary
controlled
switches:
these
additional
switches
pro
vide
a
mechanism
to
dynamically
select
the
op-
timal
mode
of
operation.
This
is
a
unique
feature
that
dif
ferentiates
your
design
from
more
static
approaches
in
traditional
and
inte
grated
con
v
erters.
−
Reduced
THD:
the
proposed
con
v
erter
achie
v
es
a
THD
of
14
.
51
%,
which
is
lo
wer
than
man
y
e
xisting
h
ybrid
con
v
erters.
This
impro
v
ement
in
THD
directly
contrib
utes
to
better
po
wer
quality
and
more
ef
cient
operation.
−
Ef
cienc
y
impro
v
ements:
at
rated
load
conditions,
the
proposed
con
v
erter
reaches
90
%
ef
cienc
y
.
Discuss
ho
w
the
inte
gration
of
SEPIC
and
yback
con
v
erters,
along
with
the
auxiliary
switches,
contri
b
utes
to
this
high
ef
cienc
y
.
−
Fle
xibility
in
application:
by
accommodating
dif
ferent
operational
modes
(SEPIC,
yback,
or
a
combina-
tion),
the
con
v
erter
can
be
tailored
to
specic
applications
lik
e
DC
micro-grids
or
EV
installations,
pro
viding
superior
adaptability
compared
to
single-mode
con
v
erters.
−
Impro
v
ed
po
wer
f
actor:
highlight
ho
w
the
reduction
in
THD
contrib
utes
to
an
impro
v
ed
po
wer
f
actor
,
making
the
proposed
con
v
erter
more
suitable
for
sensiti
v
e
applications
where
po
wer
quality
is
critical.
The
rest
of
the
paper
is
or
g
anized
as
follo
w
.
Section
1
introduces
the
paper
.
Section
2
discusses
the
proposed
h
ybrid
con
v
erter
.
Section
3
discusses
the
simulation
results.
Section
4
discusses
the
ability
of
the
proposed
con
v
erter
to
impro
v
e
the
grid
current
po
wer
f
actor
.
Finally
,
section
5
concludes
the
paper
.
2.
THE
PR
OPOSED
HYBRID
CONVER
TER
Figure
1
sho
ws
the
impro
v
ed
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
.
It
comprises
of
con
v
entional
diode
bridge
rectier
,
tw
o
DC-DC
con
v
erters
(yback
and
SEPIC
con
v
erters),
one
main
switch
M
1
,
tw
o
additional
switches
A
1
and
A
2
and
lo
w
pass
lter
capacitor
C
o
(This
capacit
or
represents
C
f
or
C
s
).
The
use
of
tw
o
DC-DC
con
v
erters,
without
introducing
tw
o
auxiliary
switches,
is
proposed
in
[22].
In
this
paper
,
the
impro
v
ed
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
is
dedicated
to
EVs
applications.
T
o
char
ge
the
main
and
auxiliary
storage
system
in
EVs
An
impr
o
ved
hybrid
A
C
to
DC
con
verter
suitable
for
electric
vehicles
applications
(Khaled
A.
Mahafzah)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1502
❒
ISSN:
2502-4752
from
electrical
grids,
such
conguration
must
be
used.
Ho
we
v
er
,
due
to
non-linearity
of
output
capacitance
beha
vior
of
the
semiconductor
switches
at
high
switching
frequenc
y
in
the
circuit,
the
po
wer
f
actor
of
the
line
current
will
be
smashed.
Therefore,
tw
o
auxiliary
switches
are
inserted
as
seen
in
Figure
1
to
reduce
the
THD
in
the
line
current
(the
input
v
oltage
of
Figure
1
is
rectied
v
oltage
by
diode
bridge
rectier
.
The
condition
of
A
1
and
A
2
determines
the
combination
of
the
tw
o
con
v
erters
(yback
or
yback/SEPIC).
The
operation
mode
is
dened
by
the
condition
of
A
1
and
A
2
.
As
a
result,
the
switching
frequenc
y
of
the
auxiliary
switches
is
substantially
lo
wer
than
the
switching
frequenc
y
of
t
he
main
switch
M
1
.
Therefore,
additional
tw
o
auxiliary
switches
are
switched
at
grid
frequenc
y
(
50
Hz
or
60
Hz)
to
reduce
the
switching
losses,
because
these
losses
increase
dramatically
with
the
switching
frequenc
y
[29],
[30].
Second,
these
switches
are
used
to
select
the
operated
DC-DC
con
v
erter
.
Conducted
a
comprehensi
v
e
re
vie
w
of
three-port
DC–DC
con
v
erters’
topologies
for
inte
grating
rene
w
able
ener
gy
and
ener
gy
storage
systems.
Their
w
ork
delv
es
into
v
arious
con
v
erter
con-
gurations,
shedding
light
on
the
e
v
olving
landscape
of
sustainable
ener
gy
inte
gration.
The
authors
analyze
the
strengths
and
limitations
o
f
dif
ferent
topologies,
contrib
uting
v
aluable
insights
to
the
ongoing
ef
forts
in
adv
ancing
rene
w
able
ener
gy
technologies.
Figure
1.
The
proposed
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
2.1.
Modes
of
operations
The
proposed
h
ybrid
con
v
erter
has
a
number
of
moods
of
operation
depending
on
the
status
of
s
witches
M
1
,
A
1
,
and
A
2
.
F
or
simplicity
,
all
de
vices
are
assumed
to
be
ideal.
The
analysis
is
discussed
in
the
follo
wing
detail.
−
Mode
1
(
M
1
is
on
A
1
is
of
f
and
A
2
is
of
f):
Figure
2
sho
ws
the
rst
tw
o
modes
.
During
this
mode,
SEPIC
and
yback
inductors
are
ener
gized
through
the
current
path
sho
wn
in
Figure
2(a).
When
M
1
is
on,
then,
V
ds
=
0
,
(ideal
switch),
applying
KVL
o
v
er
the
left
loop
of
Figure
2(a):
V
in
+
V
Ls
1
+
V
L
M
=
0
,
0
<
t
<
T
on
(1)
then,
V
Ls
1
=
V
in
−
V
LM
.
Therefor
,
i
Ls
1
=
i
LM
and
has
a
linear
ramp.
Then,
the
current
is
gi
v
en
by:
i
Ls
1
max
=
V
in
L
s
1
+
L
M
D
T
s
(2)
and
the
v
oltage
of
SEPIC
inductor
is
equal
to
the
v
oltage
across
the
coupling
capacitor
.
It
means
that:
V
Ls
2
=
V
p
(3)
The
current
of
L
s
2
is
gi
v
en
by:
i
Ls
2
max
=
−
V
cp
L
s
2
D
T
s
(4)
−
Mode
2
(
M
1
is
of
f
A
1
is
of
f
and
A
2
is
of
f):
this
mode
represents
the
resonance
mode
between
the
parasitic
capacitance
of
the
main
switch
and
the
other
passi
v
e
components
in
the
circuit.
See
Figure
2(b).
This
mode
is
too
short
com-pared
to
switching
time,
so
it
can
be
ignored.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci,
V
ol.
39,
No.
3,
September
2025:
1499–1513
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci
ISSN:
2502-4752
❒
1503
(a)
(b)
Figure
2.
The
equi
v
alent
circuit
the
rst
tw
o
modes
(a)
mode
1
and
(b)
mode
2
−
Mode
3
(
M
1
is
of
f
A
1
is
of
f
and
A
2
is
on):
based
on
Figure
3,
during
this
mode,
the
ener
gy
is
transferred
through
the
yback
diode
to
output
capacitor
.
Whereas
the
SEPIC
output
capacitance
is
dischar
ged
through
the
auxiliary
switch
A
2
,
see
Figure
3(a).
The
load
v
oltage
is
gi
v
en
by
(k
eep
in
mind
the
transformer
turns
ratio
is
a
:
V
o
=
V
in
a
=
V
Ls
3
(5)
Writing
the
current
in
secondary
side
of
the
transformer
,
this
is
gi
v
en
by:
i
L
s
3
=
V
Ls
3
L
s
3
(1
−
D
)
K
2
T
s
(6)
Where
K
2
=1-
K
1
,is
the
duty
c
ycle
of
A
2
,
V
C
f
=
V
o,f
and
i
Ls
3
=
ai
Ls
1
.
−
Mode
4
(
M
1
is
of
f
A
1
is
on
and
A
2
is
of
f):
during
this
mode,
the
con
v
erter
operates
as
boost
con
v
erter
.
See
Figure
3(b).
The
currents
during
this
mode
are
gi
v
en
by
,
respecti
v
ely:
i
Ls
1
min
=
(
V
in
−
V
C
p
−
V
o,s
)
(
L
s
1
+
L
M
)
(1
−
D
)
T
s
K
1
(7)
i
Ls
2
min
=
V
o,s
L
s
2
(1
−
D
)
T
s
K
1
(8)
Where
K
1
is
the
duty
c
ycle
of
switch
A
1
,
V
Ls
2
=
V
o,s
,
and
i
Ls
1
=
Same
as
mode
3.
(a)
(b)
Figure
3.
The
equi
v
alent
circuit
the
rst
tw
o
modes
(a)
mode
3
and
(b)
mode
4
2.2.
Duty
cycles
deri
v
ation
T
o
dri
v
e
the
main
switch
duty
c
ycle
M
1
,
starting
from
the
condition
i
Ls
1–
mode
1
=
i
Ls
1–
mode
3
,
this
gi
v
es:
V
in
L
s
1
+
L
M
D
T
s
=
V
in
a
2
L
s
3
(1
−
D
)
T
s
(9)
An
impr
o
ved
hybrid
A
C
to
DC
con
verter
suitable
for
electric
vehicles
applications
(Khaled
A.
Mahafzah)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1504
❒
ISSN:
2502-4752
Solv
e
for
D
,
this
yields:
D
=
1
a
2
L
s
3
1
[
1
L
s
1
+
L
M
+
1
a
2
L
s
3
]
(10)
to
dri
v
e
the
switch
A
1
duty
c
ycle,
this
condition
must
be
satised.
i
Ls
1–
mode
3
=
i
Ls
1–
mode
4
(11)
Then,
V
in
a
2
L
s
2
(1
−
D
)
T
s
=
V
in
−
V
C
p
−
V
o,s
L
s
2
+
L
M
(1
−
D
)
T
s
K
1
(12)
V
in
a
2
L
s
2
(1
−
K
1
)
=
V
in
−
V
C
p
−
V
o,s
L
s
2
+
L
M
K
1
(13)
solv
e
for
K
1
gi
v
es:
K
1
=
[
V
in
a
2
L
s
2
]
1
[
V
in
−
V
C
p
−
V
o,s
L
s
2
+
L
M
+
V
in
a
2
L
s
2
]
(14)
it
should
be
noted
that
A
1
and
A
2
are
both
complementary
to
each
other
.
The
ef
fecti
v
e
duty
c
ycle
in
po
wer
electronics
con
v
erters
can
notably
increase
during
high-frequenc
y
operations
due
to
turn-of
f
and
turn-on
delay
mismatches.
This
phenomenon
arises
from
a
misalignment
be-
tween
the
idealized
switching
e
v
ents
and
the
actual
t
iming
in
practical
applications.
The
consequence
is
an
ele
v
ated
ef
fecti
v
e
duty
c
ycle,
which
signicantly
af
fects
the
con
v
erter’
s
performance,
especially
at
higher
switching
frequencies.
T
urn-of
f
and
turn-on
delay
mismatches
become
particularly
pronounced
with
increased
switching
frequencies,
posing
challenges
in
accurately
controlling
the
duty
c
ycle.
This
discrepanc
y
can
result
in
v
ariations
in
the
e
xpected
output
and
ef
cienc
y
of
the
con
v
erter
,
underscoring
the
necessity
for
a
thorough
understanding
and
mitig
ation
of
these
ef
fects.
The
consideration
of
turn-of
f
and
turn-on
delay
mismatches
has
been
e
xtensi
v
ely
e
xplored
in
the
liter
-
ature,
particularly
in
s
tudies
focusing
on
datasheet-dri
v
en
modeling
of
po
wer
electronics
con
v
erters.
Mahafzah
et
al.
[31],
authors
present
a
note
w
orth
y
contrib
ution
in
the
realm
of
po
wer
electronics
with
their
duty
c
ycle
re
gulation
based
PWM
control
for
a
v
e
le
v
el
ying-capacitor
in
v
erter
.
This
w
ork
addresses
the
intricacies
of
control
mechanisms
in
multile
v
el
in
v
erters,
sho
wcasing
adv
ancements
in
po
wer
electronics
research
and
application.
2.3.
P
arameters
design
and
selection
The
continuous
conduction
mode
is
selected
to
operate
the
proposed
con
v
erter
.
It
supplies
a
4
.
5
kW
load
at
20
kHz
switching
frequenc
y
of
switch
M
1
and
50
Hz
grid
frequenc
y
of
both
auxiliary
switches
A
1
and
A
2
.
The
selected
the
proposed
con
v
erter
components
are
computed
as
the
follo
wing
steps:
−
The
magnetizati
on
inductance
(
L
m
)
i
s
designed
to
reduce
the
ripple
in
the
primary
current.
Therefore,
reducing
the
design
comple
xity
of
the
circuit’
s
EMI
lter
[25].
The
lo
wer
limit
for
this
inductance
is:
L
m
−
min
=
(1
−
D
)
2
R
o
2
f
s
(15)
where
f
s
is
the
switching
frequenc
y
,
and
R
o
is
the
load
resistance.
−
The
yback
output
capacitance
C
o
plays
an
important
role
in
reducing
the
output
v
oltage
ripple,
set
the
poles
of
the
system
transfer
function,
and
imply
the
response
of
the
supply
to
a
sudden
lar
ge
change
of
the
load
current
[29].
The
minimum
limit
of
yback
output
capacitance
is
calculated
by:
C
o,f
−
min
=
D
∆
V
o
V
o
R
o
f
s
(16)
where,
∆
V
o
V
o
is
the
required
output
v
oltage
ripple
of
the
yback.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci,
V
ol.
39,
No.
3,
September
2025:
1499–1513
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci
ISSN:
2502-4752
❒
1505
−
The
transformer
turns
ratio
(
a
=
N
1
N
2
)
is
set
to
determine
the
proposed
con
v
erter
duty
c
ycle
of
the
yback
con
v
erter
[29].
This
reduces
the
yback
diode
v
oltage
stress
and
the
v
oltage
stress
on
output
capacitance.
Then,
the
turns
ratio
can
be
calculated
by:
a
=
N
1
N
2
=
V
in
D
max
V
o,f
(1
−
D
max
)
(17)
−
The
SEPIC
inductance
L
s
2
are
designed
to
mak
e
the
EMI
lter
is
simpler
[30].
The
inductance
is
gi
v
en
by:
L
s
2
=
V
o
(1
−
D
)
∆
I
s
2
f
s
(18)
where
∆
I
s
2
is
the
desired
current
ripple
in
L
s
2
.
−
The
SEPIC
output
capacitance
C
o,s
is
designed
to
be:
C
o,s
−
min
=
∆
I
2
8∆
V
o,s
f
s
(19)
−
The
SEPIC
capacitance
C
p
is
desi
gn
e
d
to
pass
through
a
high
RMS
current
when
it
is
compared
to
C
o,s
,
therefore,
it
should
be
selected
to
be
(where
L
eq
is
the
equi
v
alent
of
parallel
inductance
L
M
and
L
s
3
):
C
p
−
min
=
L
eq
I
2
2
2∆
V
c
−
p
(20)
−
The
suggested
con
v
erter
is
designed
for
medium
po
wer
applications
with
a
rated
po
wer
of
4
.
5
kW
to
demon-
strate
its
functionality
.
Thus,
system
characteristics
such
as
input/output
po
wer
,
input/output
v
oltages,
and
switching
frequenc
y
are
specied;
the
other
parameters
are
determined
using
the
mathematical
model
pro-
vided
thus
f
ar
.
−
Switching
frequenc
y
deri
v
ation:
Ho
we
v
er
,
to
dri
v
e
the
switching
frequenc
y
of
the
proposed
con
v
erter
the
follo
wing
steps
should
be
follo
wed:
based
on
(2)
and
(4),
if
M
1
is
on,
the
drain
current
is
gi
v
en
by:
I
M
=
L
s
1
+
L
s
2
(21)
I
M
=
V
in
(
L
s
1
+
L
M
)
T
on
−
V
cp
L
s
2
T
on
(22)
solving
for
T
on
gi
v
es:
T
on
=
I
M
V
in
(
L
s
1
+
L
M
)
−
V
cp
L
s
2
(23)
and
based
on
(7),
solving
for
T
of
f
gi
v
es:
T
of
f
=
I
Ls
1
K
1
V
in
−
V
cp
−
V
o,s
L
s
1
+
L
M
(24)
therefore,
the
con
v
erter
switching
time
is
T
s
=
T
on
+
T
of
f
:
T
s
=
I
M
V
in
(
L
s
1
+
L
M
)
−
V
cp
L
s
2
+
I
Ls
1
K
1
V
in
−
V
cp
−
V
o,s
L
s
1
+
L
M
(25)
An
impr
o
ved
hybrid
A
C
to
DC
con
verter
suitable
for
electric
vehicles
applications
(Khaled
A.
Mahafzah)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1506
❒
ISSN:
2502-4752
2.4.
V
oltage
contr
ol
loops
The
proposed
con
v
erter
needs
tw
o
separate
cont
rol
loops
(Figure
4).
The
rst
one
to
control
the
main
switch,
M
1
as
seen
in
Figure
1.
T
o
k
eep
the
output
v
oltage
within
the
acceptable
limit
(
V
r
ef
),
a
v
ery
simple
v
oltage
control
loop
is
used.
The
observ
ed
feedback
v
oltage
is
compared
to
a
reference
v
oltage,
as
sho
wn
in
Figure
4(a).
The
PI
controller
is
used
to
lo
wer
the
comparison
stage’
s
steady
state
inaccurac
y
.
The
d
ut
y
c
ycle
of
the
main
switch
is
the
output
of
the
PI
controller
stage.
The
g
ate
to
source
v
oltage
of
the
chosen
MOSFET
is
then
generated
using
the
PWM
generator
at
a
gi
v
en
switching
frequenc
y
(
f
s
).
In
summery
,
see
Figures
4(a),
4(b),
and
results
of
control
loop
are
seen
in
Figure
5.
(a)
(b)
Figure
4.
The
output
v
oltage
control
(a)
the
rst
control
loop
and
(b)
the
second
control
loop
Figure
5.
Results
of
control
loops
(a)
auxiliary
switches
selection
condition
and
(b)
pulses
of
all
switches
Finally
,
the
auxiliary
switches
do
not
af
fect
the
con
v
erter
losses
because
the
y
ar
e
operating
at
50
Hz
(grid
frequenc
y),
therefore,
the
associated
losses
are
ne
gligible.
The
determination
of
controller
g
ains
within
the
PI
controller
plays
a
k
e
y
role
in
achie
ving
stable
and
responsi
v
e
control
of
the
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
.
W
ithin
the
v
oltage
control
loop
go
v
erning
the
main
switch
(
M
1
),
the
PI
controller
serv
es
to
minimize
steady
state
inaccuracies
by
comparing
the
observ
ed
feedback
v
oltage
to
the
reference
v
oltage
(
V
r
ef
).
The
proportional
(P)
component
of
the
PI
controller
addresses
immediate
errors,
while
the
inte
gral
(I)
c
o
m
ponent
focuses
on
persistent
of
fsets,
collecti
v
ely
enhancing
the
controller’
s
procienc
y
in
maintaining
the
desir
ed
output
v
oltage.
Selecting
appropriate
g
ains
for
the
PI
controller
in
v
olv
es
a
precise
tuning
process,
balancing
the
need
for
rapid
responses
to
sudden
system
changes
and
the
elimination
of
long
term
v
oltage
discrepancies.
Thi
s
tuning
is
typically
achie
v
ed
through
iterati
v
e
processes,
simulation
studies,
or
empirical
testing,
ensuring
optimal
controller
performance.
The
strate
gic
selection
of
PI
controller
g
ains
is
equally
crucial
for
the
secondary
control
loop
o
v
erseeing
the
auxiliary
switches
(
A
1
and
A
2
).
Here,
the
PI
controller
contrib
utes
to
maintaining
equilibrium
between
the
sinusoidal
w
a
v
eform
and
the
DC
v
alue,
f
acilitating
ef
fecti
v
e
g
ating
of
the
auxiliary
switches.
Analogous
to
the
v
oltage
control
loop,
the
proportional
and
inte
gral
g
ains
of
the
PI
controller
in
this
conte
xt
require
precise
tuning
for
swift
responses
to
changes
in
the
sinusoidal
w
a
v
eform
and
accurate
control
o
v
er
the
operation
of
the
auxiliary
switches.
This
detailed
tuning
process
is
instrumental
in
achie
ving
the
desired
performance
characteristics
of
the
proposed
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
,
ensuring
a
dynamic
response
to
system
changes
and
precise
re
gulation
of
both
main
and
auxiliary
switches.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci,
V
ol.
39,
No.
3,
September
2025:
1499–1513
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci
ISSN:
2502-4752
❒
1507
Mahafzah
et
al.
[32],
authors
conduct
a
thorough
re
vie
w
and
comparison
of
inte
grated
inducti
v
e-based
h
ybrid
step
u
p
DC-DC
con
v
erters
under
continuous
conduction
mode
(CCM).
The
paper
contrib
utes
v
aluable
insights
into
the
design
and
performance
e
v
aluation
of
h
ybrid
con
v
erters.
The
authors’
w
ork
a
ids
in
the
under
-
standing
of
inte
grated
inducti
v
e
based
con
v
erters,
of
fering
a
basis
for
further
adv
ancements
in
DC-DC
con
v
er
-
sion
technology
.
Mo
ving
on
to
[33],
authors
introduce
a
no
v
el
synchronized
multipl
e
output
DC-DC
con
v
erter
based
on
h
ybrid
yback-Cuk
topologies.
Their
w
ork
addresses
the
need
for
ef
cient
and
synchronized
po
wer
con
v
ersion,
pro
viding
a
solution
that
combines
the
benets
of
yback
and
Cuk
topologies.
This
no
v
el
approach
holds
promise
for
enhancing
the
performance
and
reliability
of
DC-DC
con
v
erters
in
v
arious
applications.
Y
an
et
al.
[34],
authors
focus
on
adapti
v
e
PI
control
for
the
speed
re
gulation
of
a
DC
motor
.
Their
w
ork
introduces
a
reinforcement
learning
algorithm
for
adapti
v
e
control,
e
xhibiting
potential
in
achie
ving
precise
and
adaptable
speed
control
for
DC
mo-tors.
Mo
ving
be
yond
controller
considerations,
an
in-depth
analysis
of
v
oltage
and
current
stresses
is
important
for
a
comprehensi
v
e
e
v
aluation
of
the
proposed
h
ybrid
A
C-DC
con
v
erter
.
This
process
in
v
olv
es
e
xploring
stress
f
actors
inherent
in
the
con
v
erter’
s
unique
architecture
and
di
v
erse
operational
modes.
In
v
estig
ating
v
oltage
stresses,
which
include
peak
and
RMS
v
oltages,
will
pro
vide
crucial
insights
into
their
implications
on
o
v
erall
performance
and
reliability
.
Simultaneously
,
current
stresses
in
v
olv
e
an
assess-
ment
of
peak
and
RMS
current
le
v
els,
shedding
light
on
potential
challenges
and
optimizing
the
operational
ef
cienc
y
of
the
con
v
erter
.
Zeng
et
al.
[35],
authors
present
a
DC
capacitor
-less
in
v
erter
for
single-phase
po
wer
con
v
ersion
wit
h
minimized
v
oltage
and
current
stress.
Their
w
ork
addresses
the
challenges
associated
with
traditional
DC
capacitors
in
in
v
erters.
The
proposed
solution
of
fers
a
promising
alternati
v
e,
minimizing
stress
on
both
v
oltage
and
current
in
single-phase
po
wer
con
v
ersion
applications.
Mahafzah
et
al.
[36],
contrib
ute
to
the
eld
of
in
v
erter
reliability
estimation
by
automating
c
o
m
ponent
le
v
el
st
ress
measurements.
Their
w
ork
focuses
on
adv
ancing
the
methodologies
for
ass
essing
the
reliability
of
in
v
erters.
The
authors’
automated
stress
measurement
approach
enhances
the
ef
cienc
y
of
reliability
estimation,
marking
a
signicant
step
forw
ard
in
the
eld
of
in
v
erter
technology
.
3.
SIMULA
TION
RESUL
TS
This
section
presents
the
simulation
results
of
the
proposed
con
v
erter
,
see
Figure
6,
v
alidated
using
MA
TLAB/Simulink
R2020a.
The
maximum
step
size
is
set
to
25
ms,
and
the
solv
er
utilized
is
an
ordinary
dif
ferential
equation
(ODE23tb)
with
a
relati
v
e
tolerance
of
10
−
3
.
W
ith
a
simulation
time
of
1
s,
the
proposed
con
v
erter
is
e
xpected
to
reach
a
steady
state.
The
simulation
results
for
the
proposed
con
v
erter
are
elaborated
upon
in
this
section.
P
arameters
are
chosen
based
on
the
preceding
discussion,
with
minor
adjustments
as
outlined
in
T
able
1,
summarizing
the
parameters
selected
for
the
4
.
5
kW
po
wer
appl
ication
emplo
yed
in
the
simulation.
These
characteristics
are
suitable
for
v
arious
applications,
including
EVs
adapters,
micro-in
v
erter
applications,
and
the
inte
gration
of
h
ybrid
rene
w
able
ener
gy
resources
with
po
wer
systems.
Figure
6.
Ov
erall
simulated
system
An
impr
o
ved
hybrid
A
C
to
DC
con
verter
suitable
for
electric
vehicles
applications
(Khaled
A.
Mahafzah)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1508
❒
ISSN:
2502-4752
The
simulated
load
v
oltage
and
current
are
shoen
in
Figure
7.
As
sho
wn,
the
load
v
oltage
(Figure
7(a))
is
a
DC
v
oltage
with
v
alue
around
500
V
with
the
ripple
in
the
v
oltage
is
about
12
%.
The
load
current
is
adopted
in
Figure
7(b).
It
has
the
same
beha
vior
as
the
load
v
oltage.
The
a
v
erage
load
current
is
about
8
.
5
A,
which
is
suf
cient
to
char
ge
the
EV
auxiliary
system.
Due
to
switching
beha
vior
of
the
used
con-
v
erter
during
char
ging
the
auxiliary
batteries
of
EVs
from
the
electrical
grid,
this
increases
the
nonlinear
loads
are
connected
to
the
grid.
Therefore,
the
line
current
suf
fers
from
high
THD.
The
impro
v
ed
h
ybrid
con
v
erter
can
operate
as
a
po
wer
f
actor
correction
topology
because
it
is
ability
to
form
the
line
current
and
reduces
its
THD
(see
Figure
8).
As
e
xpected,
the
impro
v
ed
con
v
erter
can
form
a
nearly
sinusoidal
grid
current
w
a
v
e,
see
Figure
8(a),
with
a
THD
within
a
standard
(see
IEEE-519).
It
can
be
seen
from
Figure
8(b)
that
the
grid
current
has
THD
about
14
.
51
%.
The
indi
vidual
3rd
harmonics
has
the
main
contrib
ution.
It
has
a
magnitude
of
13
.
2
%.
Ho
we
v
er
,
if
the
used
lter
is
optimally
designed,
this
v
alue
will
be
further
reduced.
T
able
1.
Simulation
parameters
V
ariable
D
escription
V
alue
P
in
/
P
o
Input/Output
po
wer
4
.
5
kW
V
in
RMS
grid
v
oltage
220
V
-rms
V
o
Output
DC
v
oltage
500
V
I
o
Output
DC
current
8
.
5
A
a
T
ransformer
ratio
350
/
1
,
000
C
p
SEPIC
coupling
capacitor
720
µ
F
L
s
2
SEPIC
second
inductor
800
µ
H
C
s
SEPIC
lter
capacitor
520
µ
F
C
f
Flyback
lter
capacitor
720
µ
F
(a)
(b)
Figure
7.
Simulated
v
oltage
and
current;
(a)
the
load
v
oltage
and
(b)
the
load
current
(a)
(b)
Figure
8.
Simulated
line
current
and
THD;
(a)
the
grid
current
and
(b)
THD
of
the
grid
current
4.
PO
WER
F
A
CT
OR
CORRECTION
IN
THE
GRID
CURRENT
AND
EFFICIENCY
CALCULA-
TION
The
po
wer
f
actor
of
the
grid
current
has
become
a
main
concern
in
recent
years.
Ho
we
v
er
,
Figure
8(b)
depicts
THD
of
a
grid
current.
The
THD
of
the
line
current
in
Figure
8(a)
is
around
14
.
51
%
when
utilizing
the
f
ast
fourier
transform
(FFT)
tool
in
MA
TLAB.
Due
to
inserting
the
auxiliary
switches,
the
THD
v
alue
has
been
reduced
by
about
3
%
compared
with
THD
of
the
grid
current
of
the
h
ybrid
SEPIC-Flyback
con
v
e
rter
proposed
in
[22].
Indonesian
J
Elec
Eng
&
Comp
Sci,
V
ol.
39,
No.
3,
September
2025:
1499–1513
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.