Inter
national
J
our
nal
of
Inf
ormatics
and
Communication
T
echnology
(IJ-ICT)
V
ol.
15,
No.
3,
September
2026,
pp.
1238
∼
1253
ISSN:
2252-8776,
DOI:
10.11591/ijict.v15i3.pp1238-1253
❒
1238
Classication
of
encryption
attacks
and
strategies
f
or
mitigation
Anas
Maaif
,
Khalid
Zine-Dine
Department
of
Computer
Science,
F
aculty
of
Sciences,
Mohammed
V
Uni
v
ersity
,
Rabat,
Morocco
Article
Inf
o
Article
history:
Recei
v
ed
Apr
28,
2025
Re
vised
Mar
17,
2026
Accepted
May
21,
2026
K
eyw
ords:
Classication
of
attacks
Cryptograph
y
Cybersecurity
Defense
strate
gies
Mitig
ation
ABSTRA
CT
Cryptograph
y
is
essential
for
securing
digital
communications,
yet
it
remains
vulnerable
to
v
arious
malicious
attacks.
These
attacks
can
be
classied
based
on
the
type
of
cryptograph
y
the
y
tar
get
symmetric
or
asymmetric.
This
pa-
per
presents
a
comprehensi
v
e
classication
of
encryption
attacks,
e
xamining
the
specic
vulnerabilities
associated
with
each
cryptographic
approach.
By
ana-
lyzing
these
attack
v
ectors,
the
study
sho
ws
the
importance
of
understanding
weaknesses
in
cryptographic
systems.
Furthermore,
it
proposes
se
v
eral
mitig
a-
tion
strate
gies
to
strengthen
defenses
and
enhance
protection
of
sensiti
v
e
infor
-
mation
in
the
digital
domain.
This
is
an
open
access
article
under
the
CC
BY
-SA
license
.
Corresponding
A
uthor:
Anas
Maai
Department
of
Computer
Science,
F
aculty
of
Sciences,
Mohammed
V
Uni
v
ersity
Rabat,
Morocco
Email:
anas
maai@um5.ac.ma
1.
INTR
ODUCTION
In
today’
s
digital
landscape,
where
v
ast
amounts
of
information
are
e
xchanged
continuously
,
cryp-
tograph
y
serv
es
as
the
cornerstone
of
security
,
ensuring
the
condentiality
,
inte
grity
and
authenticity
of
digital
communications.
Ho
we
v
er
,
crypt
ographic
systems,
while
vital,
are
not
immune
to
the
e
v
er
-e
v
olving
threats
posed
by
malicious
actors.
This
paper
e
xplores
the
critical
area
of
cryptographic
security
,
emphasizing
its
foundational
role
in
protecting
digital
interactions.
The
study
aims
to
pro
vide
a
nuanced
understanding
of
the
v
arious
attacks
that
tar
get
cryptographic
protocols,
classifying
them
to
better
underst
and
the
threat
landscape
and
f
acilitate
the
de
v
elopment
of
tailored
defense
strate
gies.
Central
to
this
classication
is
the
distinction
between
symmetric
and
asymmetric
cryptog-
raph
y
,
each
presenting
unique
vulnerabilities
that
attack
ers
can
e
xploit.
The
most
common
attack
ag
ainst
symmetric
cryptograph
y
is
brut
e-force,
while
man-i
n-the-middle
attacks
are
pre
v
alent
in
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
.
Usually
,
attack
ers
primarily
focus
on
breaking
or
bypassing
cryptographic
k
e
ys,
whereas
defenders
emphasize
k
e
y
length,
algorithmic
resilience
and
additional
layers
of
protection
tai
lored
to
specic
attacks.
Existing
research,
ho
we
v
er
,
often
addresses
either
attack
descriptions
or
mitig
ation
strate
gies
in
isolation,
with
fe
w
studies
pro
viding
a
structured
classication
that
links
each
attack
to
its
practical
limitations
and
countermeasures.
This
approach
limits
comprehensi
v
e
understanding,
making
it
dif
cult
for
researchers
to
systematically
assess
security
or
design
inte
grated
defense
strate
gies.
A
unied
frame
w
ork
that
cate
gorizes
attacks,
aligns
them
with
cryptographic
paradigms,
and
highlights
mitig
ation
mech-
anisms
remains
lar
gely
absent
in
the
literature.
By
e
xamining
attacks
ag
ainst
both
types
of
cryptographic
schemes,
this
w
ork
seeks
to
unra
v
el
the
specic
challenges
inherent
in
each
paradi
g
m
.
Through
a
comprehensi
v
e
classication,
the
paper
highlights
the
J
ournal
homepage:
http://ijict.iaescor
e
.com
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol
ISSN:
2252-8776
❒
1239
di
v
erse
attack
v
ectors
that
threaten
cryptographic
securi
ty
,
pa
ving
the
w
ay
for
the
strate
gies
of
rob
ust
security
measures.
This
paper
is
or
g
anized
as
follo
ws:
Section
2
pro
vides
a
background
on
symmetric
and
asymm
etric
cryptograph
y
,
laying
the
foundation
for
S
ection
3,
where
we
classify
the
v
arious
attacks
on
each
cryptographic
type.
In
addition
to
understanding
cryptographic
attack
methodologies,
it
is
equally
important
to
study
the
mechanisms
used
to
defend
ag
ainst
them.
Ef
fecti
v
e
defense
strate
gies
play
a
critical
role
in
preserving
data
condentiality
,
inte
grity
and
authenticity
.
As
attack
techniques
continue
to
e
v
olv
e,
cryptographic
systems
must
adopt
adapti
v
e
and
layered
security
measures.
In
this
paper
,
section
4
therefore
emphasizes
defensi
v
e
approaches
and
strate
gies
as
a
fundamental
component
of
secure
cryptographic
design,
enhancing
the
resilience
of
cryptographic
systems
and
ensuring
better
protection
of
sensiti
v
e
information.
T
o
address
these
challenges,
this
paper
pro
vides
a
s
tructured
analysis
of
cryptographic
attacks
and
defenses.
Specically
,
it
pro
vides
a
taxonomy
of
attacks
on
symmetric
and
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
,
maps
each
attack
to
its
associated
vulnerabilities,
risks,
and
practical
implications,
proposes
mitig
ation
strate
gies
tailored
to
specic
attack
types,
and
highlights
emer
ging
directions,
including
AI
and
ML
dri
v
en
approaches
to
enhancing
cryptographic
security
.
2.
CR
YPT
OGRAPHY
O
VER
VIEW
In
this
section,
we
focus
on
tw
o
primary
types
of
symmetric
and
asymmetric
cryptogra
ph
y
,
each
of
which
plays
a
critical
role
in
safe
guarding
information.
W
e
will
e
xamine
their
core
objecti
v
es,
functionality
,
and
areas
of
application,
shedding
light
on
ho
w
the
y
contrib
ute
to
modern
security
practices.
2.1.
Symmetric
cryptograph
y
Symmetric
cryptograph
y
,
also
kno
wn
as
secret-k
e
y
cryptograph
y
,
in
v
olv
es
the
use
of
a
single
k
e
y
for
both
encryption
and
decryption
processes.
It
is
characterized
by
its
ef
cienc
y
in
encrypting
lar
ge
amounts
of
data
due
to
the
relati
v
ely
simple
and
f
ast
algorithm
s
emplo
yed.
Common
e
xamples
of
symmetric
encryption
algorithms
include
the
adv
anced
encryption
standard
(AES)
and
the
data
encryption
standard
(DES)
(see
[1]-
[6]).
The
Figure
1
sho
ws
a
comprehensi
v
e
structure
of
symmetric
cryptograph
y
.
Objecti
v
es
of
symmetric
cryptograph
y:
−
Condentiality:
ensuring
that
inform
ation
is
only
accessible
to
authorized
parties
who
possess
the
secret
k
e
y
.
−
Inte
grity:
protecting
data
from
unauthorized
alterations.
−
Authentication:
v
erifying
that
the
sender
and
recei
v
er
of
the
message
are
le
gitimate.
−
Ef
cienc
y:
enabling
f
ast
and
resource-ef
fecti
v
e
encryption
and
decryption
of
data.
Use
cases:
−
Data
encryption:
symmetric
encryption
is
widely
used
for
b
ulk
data
encryption,
such
as
securing
les,
databases,
and
communication
streams
in
real-time
systems.
−
Secure
communication:
symmetric
k
e
ys
are
often
emplo
yed
in
securing
communication
channels,
such
as
in
virtual
pri
v
ate
netw
orks
(VPNs)
and
secure
sock
ets
layer
(SSL)/transport
layer
security
(TLS)
protocols.
−
Disk
and
le
encryption:
full
disk
encryption
tools
lik
e
BitLock
er
and
le
encryption
softw
are
lik
e
V
er
-
aCrypt
rely
on
symmetric
encryption
to
safe
guard
stored
data.
Figure
1.
Symmetric
cryptograph
y
protocol
Classication
of
encryption
attac
ks
and
str
ate
gies
for
mitigation
(Anas
Maai)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1240
❒
ISSN:
2252-8776
Despite
its
adv
antages,
symmetric
cryptograph
y
presents
challenges,
particularly
in
the
secure
e
x-
change
of
k
e
ys
between
parties.
This
vulnerability
is
addressed
by
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
,
which
we
e
xplore
in
the
follo
wing
section.
2.2.
Asymmetric
cryptograph
y
Asymmetric
cryptograph
y
,
also
referred
to
as
public-k
e
y
cryptograph
y
,
uses
tw
o
distinct
k
e
ys:
a
public
k
e
y
for
encryption
and
a
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
for
decryption.
The
tw
o
k
e
ys
are
mathematically
related,
b
ut
it
is
com-
putationally
infeasible
to
deri
v
e
the
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
from
the
public
k
e
y
.
Popular
asymmetric
algorithms
include
the
Ri
v
est-Shamir
-Adleman
(RSA),
Dif
e-Hellman,
and
elliptic
curv
e
cryptograph
y
(ECC)
(see
[7]-[11]).
The
Figure
2
sho
ws
a
comprehensi
v
e
structure
of
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
.
Objecti
v
es
of
asymmetric
cryptograph
y:
−
Condentiality:
protecting
data
by
ensuring
that
only
the
holder
of
the
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
can
decrypt
the
informa-
tion.
−
Authentication:
v
erifying
the
identity
of
the
parties
in
v
olv
ed
in
the
communication
through
digital
signa-
tures.
−
Non-repudiation:
ensuring
that
the
sender
cannot
den
y
ha
ving
sent
the
message,
enabled
by
digital
signature
v
erication.
−
K
e
y
e
xchange:
enabling
secure
k
e
y
distrib
ution
o
v
er
insecure
channels
without
the
need
for
a
shared
secret.
Use
cases:
−
Digital
signatures:
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
underpins
digital
signature
schemes
used
for
authenticating
the
sender’
s
identity
and
ensuring
message
inte
grity
.
−
K
e
y
e
xchange
protocols:
protocols
lik
e
SSL/TLS
use
asymmetric
encryption
to
securel
y
e
xchange
symmet-
ric
k
e
ys,
which
are
then
used
for
f
aster
data
encryption
during
communication.
−
Email
encryption:
pretty
good
pri
v
ac
y
(PGP)
and
secure/multipurpose
internet
mail
e
xtensions
(S/MIME)
rely
on
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
to
secure
email
communications.
−
Certicate
authorities:
public-k
e
y
infrastructure
(PKI)
systems
use
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
to
issue
digital
certicates,
enabling
trust
in
secure
communications.
While
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
o
v
ercomes
the
k
e
y
distrib
ution
problem,
it
is
computationally
more
intensi
v
e
than
symmetric
cryptograph
y
,
making
it
less
ef
cient
for
encrypting
lar
ge
v
olumes
of
data.
Both
sym-
metric
and
asymmet
ric
cryptographic
systems
serv
e
critical
roles
in
modern
c
ybersecurity
,
with
each
of
fering
unique
strengths
and
addressing
specic
challenges.
Symmetric
cryptograph
y
e
xcels
in
ef
cienc
y
,
making
it
ideal
for
encrypting
lar
ge
datasets,
while
asymmetric
cryptograph
y
pro
vides
enhanced
security
features,
par
-
ticularly
in
k
e
y
management
and
authentication.
By
understanding
the
objecti
v
es
and
applications
of
these
tw
o
cryptographic
types,
we
can
better
appreciate
the
multif
aceted
nature
of
cryptographic
security
and
the
importance
of
emplo
ying
them
in
tandem
to
b
uild
rob
ust,
secure
systems.
Figure
2.
Asymmetric
cryptograph
y
protocol
3.
A
TT
A
CKS
A
GAINST
CR
YPT
OGRAPHIC
PR
O
T
OCOLS
Cryptographic
protocols
are
fundamental
to
the
security
of
modern
digital
systems,
pro
viding
mecha-
nisms
for
secure
communication,
data
inte
grity
,
and
authentication.
Ho
we
v
er
,
these
protocols
are
not
in
vulner
-
able
and
ha
v
e
been
the
tar
get
of
v
arious
attacks
designed
to
e
xploit
weaknesses
in
their
underlying
algorithms,
implementation,
or
k
e
y
management
systems.
The
classication
of
these
attacks
can
be
broadly
di
vi
ded
based
on
the
type
of
cryptograph
y
used
symmetric
or
asymmetric
each
of
which
is
subject
to
distinct
attack
v
ec-
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol,
V
ol.
15,
No.
3,
September
2026:
1238–1253
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol
ISSN:
2252-8776
❒
1241
tors.
Understanding
these
attack
cate
gories
is
essential
for
identifying
vulnerabil
ities
and
de
v
e
loping
more
resilient
cryptographic
systems.
In
this
section,
we
pro
vide
a
comprehensi
v
e
classication
of
attacks
ag
ainst
both
symmetric
and
asymmetric
cryptographic
protocols
(see
[12]-[19]).
3.1.
Attacks
against
symetric
cryptograph
y
pr
otocols
3.1.1.
Brute
f
or
ce
attacks
A
brute
force
attack
is
a
method
used
by
attack
ers
to
g
ain
unauthorized
access
to
a
system
by
syst
em-
atically
attempting
all
possible
combinations
of
k
e
ys
or
passw
ords
until
the
correct
one
is
found.
This
attack
e
xploits
the
computational
po
wer
a
v
ailable
to
test
e
v
ery
potential
k
e
y
or
passw
ord
in
a
gi
v
en
k
e
y
space,
which
is
the
total
number
of
possible
k
e
ys
that
can
be
generated
based
on
the
length
and
comple
xity
of
the
passw
ord
or
encryption
k
e
y
.
Process:
Figure
3
sho
ws
t
he
process
of
a
Bruteforce
attack.
The
ef
fecti
v
eness
of
brute
force
atta
cks
diminishes
as
k
e
y
lengths
increase,
b
ut
the
y
remain
a
persistent
threat
when
passw
ords
or
encryption
k
e
ys
are
inadequately
comple
x.
Figure
3.
Bruteforce
attack’
s
process
Example
of
brute
force
attack:
an
attack
er
attempts
to
break
a
DES-encrypted
message
by
systemati
-
cally
trying
all
2
56
possible
k
e
ys
until
the
correct
k
e
y
is
found.
Due
to
the
relati
v
ely
short
k
e
y
length
of
DES,
such
attacks
ha
v
e
become
feasible
with
modern
computing
po
wer
,
rendering
DES
insecure
ag
ainst
brute-force
attacks.
3.1.2.
Fr
equency
analysis
attacks
Frequenc
y
analysis
attack
is
a
cryptanalytic
technique
used
to
decipher
information
by
e
xploiting
the
frequenc
y
of
symbols
in
a
cipherte
xt.
This
method
is
particularly
ef
fecti
v
e
ag
ainst
simple
substitution
ciphers,
where
each
letter
or
symbol
in
the
plainte
xt
i
s
consistently
replaced
by
a
corresponding
symbol
in
the
cipherte
xt.
By
analyzing
the
frequenc
y
of
symbols
in
the
cipherte
xt,
attack
ers
can
deduce
correspondences
between
the
cipherte
xt
symbols
and
the
common
letters
in
the
plainte
xt,
thereby
breaking
the
cipher
.
Process:
Figure
4
sho
ws
the
process
of
a
frequenc
y
analysis
attack.
This
type
of
attack
is
particul
arly
ef
fecti
v
e
ag
ainst
clas
sical
ciphers
lik
e
the
Caesar
cipher
and
other
si
mple
substitution
ciphers,
where
symbol
frequencies
in
the
cipherte
xt
closely
reect
those
in
the
plainte
xt.
Example
of
frequenc
y
analysis
attack:
in
a
monoalphabetic
substitution
cipher
,
the
attack
er
observ
es
that
the
most
frequent
symbol
in
the
cipherte
xt
appears
approxi
mately
13%
of
the
time.
By
correlating
this
frequenc
y
with
t
he
letter
“E,
”
which
is
the
most
common
letter
in
English,
the
attack
er
can
be
gin
reconstructing
the
plainte
xt
and
e
v
entually
reco
v
er
the
full
message.
Classication
of
encryption
attac
ks
and
str
ate
gies
for
mitigation
(Anas
Maai)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1242
❒
ISSN:
2252-8776
Figure
4.
Frequenc
y
analysis
attack
process
3.1.3.
Exhausti
v
e
sear
ch
attacks
Exhausti
v
e
search
attacks,
one
of
the
brute-force
attacks,
in
v
olv
e
systematically
attempting
all
pos
sible
combinations
of
characters
to
nd
a
secret,
such
as
a
passw
ord
or
encryption
k
e
y
.
This
attack
method
is
commonly
used
in
scenarios
lik
e
passw
ord
and
encryption
k
e
y
cracking,
where
e
v
ery
concei
v
able
combination
is
tested
until
the
correct
one
is
identied.
The
ef
fecti
v
eness
of
an
e
xhausti
v
e
search
attack
depends
on
the
size
of
the
solution
space,
which
is
the
total
number
of
possible
combinations.
Lar
ger
solution
spaces
mak
e
the
attack
more
time-consuming
and
computationally
e
xpensi
v
e,
as
the
number
of
combinations
to
be
tested
increases
e
xponentially
.
Process:
the
Figure
5
sho
ws
the
process
of
an
e
xhausti
v
e
search
attack.
Example
of
e
xhausti
v
e
search
attack:
an
attack
er
tar
gets
an
AES-128
encrypted
le
and
attempts
e
v
ery
possible
k
e
y
in
the
2
128
k
e
y
space.
Although
theoretically
pos
sible,
the
enormous
size
of
the
k
e
y
space
mak
es
such
an
attack
computationally
infeasible,
demonstrating
ho
w
increased
k
e
y
length
mitig
ates
e
xhausti
v
e
search
attacks.
Figure
5.
Exhausti
v
e
search
attack’
s
process
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol,
V
ol.
15,
No.
3,
September
2026:
1238–1253
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol
ISSN:
2252-8776
❒
1243
3.1.4.
Differ
ential
attacks,
or
differ
ential
cryptanalysis
Dif
ferential
cryptanalysis
is
an
attack
method
tar
geting
weaknesses
in
symmetric-k
e
y
block
ciphers
by
e
xamining
ho
w
dif
ferences
in
plainte
xt
inputs
af
fect
the
resulting
cipherte
xts.
This
technique
e
xploits
the
patterns
and
relationships
between
dif
ferences
in
plainte
xts
and
their
corresponding
cipherte
xts
to
g
ain
insights
into
the
encryption
algorithm’
s
internal
structure.
The
ultimate
goal
is
to
reco
v
er
portions
of
the
secret
k
e
y
or
to
enhance
the
ef
cienc
y
of
brute-force
attacks.
The
success
of
dif
ferential
cryptanalysis
is
highly
dependent
on
the
design
and
structure
of
the
block
cipher
being
tar
geted.
Process:
the
Figure
6
sho
ws
the
process
of
an
dif
ferential
attack.
Example
of
dif
ferential
cryptanal
ysis
attack:
an
attack
er
encrypts
pairs
of
plainte
xts
wit
h
specic
dif
ferences
and
observ
es
the
resulting
cipherte
xt
dif
ferences.
By
analyzing
ho
w
these
dif
ferences
propag
ate
through
multiple
rounds
of
a
block
cipher
,
such
as
DES,
the
attack
er
can
deduce
information
about
subk
e
ys
used
in
each
round,
signicantly
reducing
the
k
e
y
search
space.
Figure
6.
Dif
ferential
attack’
s
process
3.1.5.
Oracle
attacks
Oracle
attacks
in
v
olv
e
e
xploiting
a
system
that
pro
vides
information
about
cryptographic
operati
ons
to
g
ain
insights
into
protected
secret
information.
These
att
acks
le
v
erage
the
system’
s
responses
to
queries
or
operations
to
e
xtract
sensiti
v
e
data,
such
as
plainte
xt
or
cryptographic
k
e
ys.
Dif
ferent
types
of
oracle
attacks
e
xploit
v
arious
aspects
of
the
cryptographic
system’
s
beha
vior
,
including
ho
w
it
handles
padding,
timing,
errors,
and
ph
ysical
side-channel
information.
a.
P
adding
Oracle
attacks
−
Scenario:
in
symmetric
encryption
schemes
that
use
padding,
attack
ers
submit
cipherte
xts
to
an
oracle
and
observ
e
whether
the
decrypted
plainte
xt’
s
padding
is
v
alid.
−
Exploitation:
by
analyzing
the
oracle’
s
responses,
attack
ers
can
infer
information
about
the
plainte
xt
and
gradually
deduce
the
entire
message,
le
v
eraging
the
patterns
in
padding
v
alidity
.
The
Figure
7
sho
ws
the
process
of
a
padding
Oracle
attack.
Figure
7.
P
adding
Oracle
attack’
s
process
Classication
of
encryption
attac
ks
and
str
ate
gies
for
mitigation
(Anas
Maai)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1244
❒
ISSN:
2252-8776
b
.
T
iming
Oracle
attacks
−
Scenario:
these
attacks
e
xploit
v
ariations
in
the
time
tak
en
for
cryptographic
operations
to
complete.
−
Exploitation:
attack
ers
measure
the
time
it
tak
es
for
the
system
to
process
cryptographic
operations
to
infer
details
about
the
encrypted
data
or
cryptographic
k
e
y
.
V
ariations
in
processing
time
can
re
v
eal
information
about
the
internal
state
of
the
system
or
specic
bits
of
the
k
e
y
.
The
Figure
8
sho
ws
the
process
of
a
padding
Oracle
attack.
Figure
8.
T
iming
Oracle
attacks
c.
Error
-based
Oracle
attacks
−
Scenario:
in
v
olv
es
e
xploiting
error
messages
generated
when
cryptographic
operations
f
ail,
such
as
during
decryption
or
v
alidation
processes.
−
Exploitation:
attack
ers
analyze
the
content
and
patterns
of
error
messages
to
g
ain
insights
into
the
correctness
of
parts
of
the
cryptographic
input,
potentially
re
v
ealing
information
about
the
secret
k
e
y
or
plainte
xt.
d.
Side-channel
Oracle
attacks
−
Scenario:
These
attacks
e
xploit
ph
ysical
information
leak
ed
during
the
e
x
ecution
of
cryptographic
algorithms,
such
as
v
ariations
in
po
wer
consumption,
electromagnetic
radiation,
or
acoustic
emissions.
−
Exploitation:
By
observing
and
analyzing
these
side-channel
leaks,
attack
ers
can
infer
details
about
the
cryptographic
k
e
y
or
the
internal
w
orkings
of
the
cryptographic
algorithm.
The
Figure
9
sho
ws
the
side
channel
Oracle
attack.
Process:
the
Figure
10
sho
ws
the
process
of
a
side
channel
Oracle
attack.
Symmetric
cryptograph
y
protocols
are
vulnerable
to
a
wide
range
of
attacks,
including
brute
force,
frequenc
y
analysis,
e
xhausti
v
e
search,
dif
ferential,
and
Oracle
attacks.
Additional
attack
types
such
as
replay
attacks,
meet-in-the-middle
attacks,
side-channel
attacks,
kno
wn-plainte
xt
attacks
(KP
A),
and
chosen-plainte
xt
attacks
(CP
A)
further
demonstrate
the
di
v
ersity
of
potential
threats.
Figure
9.
Side-channel
Oracle
attacks
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol,
V
ol.
15,
No.
3,
September
2026:
1238–1253
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol
ISSN:
2252-8776
❒
1245
Figure
10.
Side-channel
Oracle
attack’
s
process
3.2.
Attacks
against
asymetric
cryptograph
y
pr
otocols
3.2.1.
F
actorization
attacks
F
actorization
attacks
tar
get
the
prime
f
actors
of
public
k
e
ys
used
in
asymmetric
cryptographic
algo-
rithms,
such
as
RSA,
with
the
objecti
v
e
of
reco
v
ering
the
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
.
This
type
of
attack
e
xploits
the
math-
ematical
dif
culty
of
f
actoring
a
lar
ge
number
into
its
prime
components,
which
is
the
foundation
of
RSA
’
s
security
.
The
process
in
v
olv
es
decomposing
the
public
k
e
y
typically
a
product
of
tw
o
lar
ge
prime
numbers
into
its
component
primes,
thereby
enabling
the
attack
er
to
deri
v
e
the
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
.
Process:
the
Figure
11
sho
ws
the
process
of
a
f
actorization
attack.
Example
of
f
actorization
a
ttack
(RSA):
an
attack
er
tar
gets
an
RSA
public
k
e
y
by
attempting
to
f
actor
the
modulus
n,
which
is
the
product
of
tw
o
lar
ge
prime
numbers.
If
the
attack
er
successfully
f
actors
n
into
its
prime
components,
the
y
can
compute
the
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
and
decrypt
encrypted
messages
or
for
ge
digital
signatures.
Historical
adv
ances
in
inte
ger
f
actorization
algorithms
ha
v
e
demonstrated
that
insuf
cient
k
e
y
sizes
mak
e
RSA
vulnerable
to
such
attacks.
Figure
11.
F
actorization
attack’
s
process
3.2.2.
Exhausti
v
e
sear
ch
f
or
pri
v
ate
k
eys
Exhausti
v
e
Search
for
Pri
v
ate
K
e
ys,
also
kno
wn
as
brute-
force
search,
is
a
cryptographic
attack
in
which
an
attack
er
systematically
tests
all
possible
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
combinations
to
nd
the
correct
one.
This
method
Classication
of
encryption
attac
ks
and
str
ate
gies
for
mitigation
(Anas
Maai)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
1246
❒
ISSN:
2252-8776
is
used
in
asymmetric
k
e
y
algorithms
and
relies
on
the
impracticality
of
e
xhausti
v
ely
searching
the
entire
k
e
y
space
due
to
its
v
ast
size.
The
feasibility
of
this
attack
decreases
as
the
size
of
the
k
e
y
space
gro
ws,
making
it
increasingly
dif
cult
to
disco
v
er
the
correct
k
e
y
.
Process:
the
Figure
12
sho
ws
the
process
of
an
e
xhausti
v
e
search
attack.
Example
of
e
xhausti
v
e
Search
for
pri
v
ate
k
e
ys:
an
attack
er
attempts
to
reco
v
er
an
asymmetric
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
by
systematically
testing
all
possible
k
e
y
v
alues.
Although
theoretically
possible,
the
e
xtremely
lar
ge
k
e
y
spaces
used
in
modern
asymmetric
algorithms
such
as
RSA
and
ECC
mak
e
e
xhausti
v
e
s
earch
attacks
computationally
infeasible
when
appropriate
k
e
y
lengths
are
emplo
yed.
Figure
12.
Exhausti
v
e
search’
s
process
3.2.3.
Collision
attacks
Collision
attacks
tar
get
hash
functions
with
the
objecti
v
e
of
nding
tw
o
distinct
inputs
that
produce
the
same
output
hash
v
alue,
kno
wn
as
a
collision.
Hash
functions
are
designed
to
map
arbitrary
data
to
x
ed-
size
hash
v
alues.
In
a
collision
attack,
the
attack
er
aims
to
nd
tw
o
dif
ferent
inputs,
M
1
and
M
2
,
such
that
H
(
M
1
)
=
H
(
M
2
)
,
where
H
represents
the
hash
function.
The
ability
to
nd
such
collisions
undermines
the
inte
grity
and
security
guarantees
pro
vided
by
the
hash
function.
Process:
the
F
igure
13
sho
ws
the
proces
s
of
a
collision
attack.
Example
of
collision
attack
on
hash
functions
Used
in
asymmetric
cryptograph
y:
an
attack
er
nds
tw
o
distinct
messages
that
produce
the
same
hash
v
alue
using
a
weak
hash
function.
In
digital
signature
schemes,
this
allo
ws
the
att
ack
er
to
substitute
a
le
gitimate
signed
message
with
a
malicious
one
that
has
the
same
hash,
thereby
undermining
message
inte
grity
and
authentication
in
asymmetric
cryptographic
systems.
Figure
13.
Collision
attack’
s
process
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol,
V
ol.
15,
No.
3,
September
2026:
1238–1253
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.
Int
J
Inf
&
Commun
T
echnol
ISSN:
2252-8776
❒
1247
3.2.4.
T
iming
analysis
attacks
T
iming
analysis
attacks
are
a
type
of
side-channel
attack
that
e
xploit
v
ariations
in
the
time
tak
en
by
a
cryptographic
system
to
perform
specic
operations.
By
measuring
t
hese
time
v
ariations,
attack
ers
can
infer
sensiti
v
e
details,
such
as
cryptographic
k
e
ys.
These
attacks
f
all
under
the
cate
gory
of
side-channel
attacks,
which
le
v
erage
unintended
information
leakage
from
the
ph
ysical
implementation
of
a
cryptographic
system.
T
iming
v
aria
tions
can
arise
due
to
f
actors
such
as
input
data,
system
state,
or
internal
cryptographic
processes.
The
primary
objecti
v
e
of
timing
analysis
attacks
is
to
analyze
timing
dif
ferences
to
re
v
eal
information
about
the
cryptographic
k
e
y
or
other
sensiti
v
e
details.
Process:
the
Figure
14
sho
ws
the
process
of
a
timing
analysis
attack.
Example
of
RSA
timing
anal-
ysis
attack:
an
attack
er
measures
the
time
tak
en
by
a
serv
er
to
perform
RSA
pri
v
ate-k
e
y
operations,
such
as
decryption
or
signature
generation.
By
analyzing
v
ariations
in
e
x
ecution
time
correlated
with
k
e
y-dependent
operations,
the
attack
er
can
infer
information
about
the
pri
v
ate
k
e
y
.
This
type
of
attack
e
xploits
implementation
weaknesses
rather
than
a
ws
in
the
RSA
algorithm
itself.
Figure
14.
T
iming
analysis
attack’
s
process
3.2.5.
Side-channel
attacks
Side-channel
attacks
e
xploit
unintentional
information
leaks
from
the
ph
ysical
implementation
of
a
cryptographic
system,
circumv
enting
the
mathematical
rob
ustness
of
the
al
g
or
ithms
themselv
es.
These
attacks
le
v
erage
observ
able
side-channel
information,
such
as
po
wer
consumption,
electromagnetic
radiation,
e
x
ecu-
tion
time,
or
e
v
en
sound,
to
infer
sensiti
v
e
details
such
as
cryptographic
k
e
ys.
By
analyzing
these
unintentional
leaks,
attack
ers
can
g
ain
insights
into
the
internal
w
orkings
of
the
cryptographic
system
[20].
Common
types
of
side-channel
attacks:
−
T
iming
attacks:
e
xploit
v
ariations
in
the
time
tak
en
for
cryptographic
operations.
By
measuring
the
e
x
ecution
time
of
dif
ferent
operations,
attack
ers
can
infer
details
about
the
internal
state
or
k
e
y
material.
−
Po
wer
analysis
attacks:
monitor
the
po
wer
consumption
of
a
cryptographic
de
vice
during
operations.
V
ari-
ations
in
po
wer
consumption
can
be
correlated
with
specic
computations,
re
v
ealing
information
about
the
cryptographic
k
e
y
or
intermediate
v
alues.
−
Electromagnetic
analysis
attacks:
observ
e
electromagnetic
radiation
emitted
by
a
cryptographic
de
vice
during
operations.
The
patterns
in
electromagnetic
emissions
can
pro
vide
insights
into
the
internal
processes
and
cryptographic
k
e
ys.
−
Acoustic
analysis
attacks:
capture
and
analyze
the
sound
produced
by
a
cryptographic
de
vice
while
it
is
operating.
V
ariations
in
sound
patterns
can
be
e
xploited
to
deduce
details
about
cryptographic
computations.
−
Cache
attacks:
e
xploit
the
beha
vior
of
cache
memory
during
cryptographic
operations.
By
analyzing
cache
access
patterns
and
memory
usage,
attack
ers
can
infer
information
about
the
data
being
processed.
Classication
of
encryption
attac
ks
and
str
ate
gies
for
mitigation
(Anas
Maai)
Evaluation Warning : The document was created with Spire.PDF for Python.