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31,377 Article Results

An energy-efficient clustering approach for wireless sensor networks: green hybrid-LEACH

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp762-771
Maha I. Raheem , Mazin Ismael Raheem
Energy management is a key challenge in wireless sensor networks (WSNs), primarily due to the limited battery resources of sensors, which shorten the network lifespan. Uneven energy consumption and high routing overhead significantly reduce network longevity. In this paper, we present an energy efficient clustering method called green hybrid-low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (GH-LEACH). The proposed method selects balanced and energy-efficient cluster heads (CHs) during the setup phase by considering residual energy, node density, node centrality, and distance to the base station (BS). Additionally, an adaptive CH rotation mechanism and multi-hop communication among CHs are incorporated to reduce transmission energy and distribute the network load more effectively. Results demonstrate that GH-LEACH minimizes network overhead, extends the time until the first node dies (FND), improves overall network performance, and enhances throughput compared to existing protocols such as conventional LEACH, LEACH-C, TL-LEACH, and LEACH-F. This approach distributes the energy load among sensors more evenly, especially in denser networks.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 762-771
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Explainable machine learning for leukaemia diagnosis: enhancing interpretability and trust

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp817-823
Hamza Abu Owida , Mohammad R. Hassan , Nidal Turab , Suhaila Abuowaida
One of the major challenges in applying machine learning (ML) to leukaemia diagnosis is the limited interpretability of deep learning models such as artificial neural networks (ANNs) and convolutional neural networks (CNNs). While these models excel at detecting complex patterns in medical data, they often function as “black boxes,” providing little transparency into their decision-making processes. This lack of explainability raises concerns in clinical practice, where understanding why a model predicts a specific leukaemia subtype is critical for guiding treatment decisions, including chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation. To address these concerns, researchers are increasingly adopting explainable AI (XAI) techniques. Methods such as saliency maps, feature importance rankings, and attention mechanisms allow clinicians to visualize how specific factors such as genetic mutations, biomarkers, or cell morphology contribute to diagnostic outcomes. These interpretability tools not only enhance transparency but also foster trust among healthcare providers and patients. By bridging the gap between computational accuracy and clinical reliability, XAI ensures that ML models can be safely integrated into diagnostic workflows. Ultimately, explainable approaches strengthen confidence in AI-driven leukaemia diagnosis, supporting more informed medical decisions and improving patient care.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 817-823
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Zero-trust IoT security using homomorphic encryption, blockchain, and machine learning

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp965-974
Khader Musbah Titi
The growing deployment of internet of things (IoT) devices across healthcare, manufacturing, and smart infrastructure has introduced serious security vulnerabilities that can no longer be ignored. Traditional perimeter-based security models have proven inadequate for decentralized IoT environments, especially given that approximately 67% of these devices lack sufficient protection. To address this critical gap, this paper presents a unified security framework that brings together zero trust architecture (ZTA), homomorphic encryption (HE), blockchain, and machine learning (ML) into a single adaptive architecture. At its core, the framework employs Cheon-Kim-Kim-Song (CKKS) based HE for privacy-preserving computation, hyperledger fabric for decentralized identity and key management, and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks for real-time anomaly detection—all operating directly on encrypted data. We validated our approach through extensive experiments on 150,000 samples across 50 IoT devices, and the results were impressive. The framework achieved 97.2% threat detection accuracy with an average response latency of just 120 ms, along with 97.2% resistance to penetration attacks. Notably, it also reduced energy consumption by 25% compared to conventional LSTM implementations. What makes these findings particularly significant is that our framework outperformed both ZTA-only and blockchain-only baselines—by 5.7% and 8.9%, respectively—while maintaining complete data privacy. Furthermore, scalability analyses confirmed linear scaling to over 1,000 devices across 20 edge nodes. Taken together, these results position this framework as a mature, production-ready solution for large-scale IoT security deployments.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 965-974
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Low-depth three-parameter quantum convolutional neural network for image classification

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp857-870
Jing Wang , Yong Zhang , Min Zhao
Quantum convolutional neural networks (QCNNs) typically consist of quantum encoding, convolution, and pooling layers. However, existing QCNNs for image classification still face two major limitations. Most encoding layers rely on single-parameter angle encoding, which limits their ability to represent complex image features. Many circuit architectures are relatively deep, increasing cir cuit complexity and noise accumulation and thus hindering implementation on noisy intermediate-scale quantum devices. To address these issues, this paper proposes a low-depth three-parameter encoding quantum convolutional neural network (LTP-QCNN) for image classification. The model employs a three parameter angle encoding layer that maps compressed image features onto the rotation angles of single-qubit gates. A first low-depth quantum convolutional layer is employed to extract local features, followed by a quantum pooling layer for quantum-state dimensionality reduction and information fusion. The pooled quantum states are then processed by a second quantum convolutional layer to extract discriminative features. Finally, the measured quantum feature vector is input into a classical classification layer to produce the final prediction. Simulation experiments were conducted on the Fashion-MNIST, MNIST, and KMNIST benchmark datasets. On Fashion-MNIST, LTP-QCNN achieved an accuracy of 99.85% on binary classification, while the accuracies for five-class and six class tasks reached 90.98% and 89.48%, respectively. The results demonstrate that LTP-QCNN achieves effective and stable image classification under limited quantum resources.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 857-870
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Hybrid supervised–unsupervised machine learning model for proactive congestion control in 5G networks

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp772-779
Arun Kodirekka , I. M. V. Krishna , N. Srinivas , Ch. Satya Keerthi N. V. L. , B. Senthilkumaran , Janjhyam Venkata Naga Ramesh
The rapid expansion of fifth-generation (5G) networks has introduced unprecedented challenges in congestion management due to massive device connectivity, diverse traffic patterns, and stringent quality of service (QoS) requirements. Traditional congestion control mechanisms, such as transmission control protocol (TCP), are reactive and often inadequate in dynamic 5G environments, leading to packet loss, latency, and degraded service reliability. To address these limitations, this paper proposes a hybrid congestion control prediction model that integrates supervised and unsupervised machine learning techniques. Supervised learning leverages historical traffic data to predict congestion in known scenarios, while unsupervised learning identifies hidden traffic patterns and anomalies in previously unseen conditions. This dual approach enables proactive congestion detection and adaptive traffic management. Experimental evaluation demonstrates that the hybrid model achieves 95.8% prediction accuracy, reduces detection latency to 180 ms, and lowers false positive rates to 4.5%, outperforming individual supervised or unsupervised models. The results confirm that combining predictive accuracy with anomaly detection provides a robust, scalable, and adaptive solution for congestion control in 5G networks. The proposed model enhances real-time traffic management, ensuring improved QoS, reliability, and resilience in complex 5G environments.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 772-779
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Engineering autonomous and resilient power grids for a fully electrified future

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp683-694
Tole Sutikno
The global transition toward deep electrification is fundamentally reshaping the role of power grids in modern society. Rapid integration of renewable energy resources, distributed energy systems, electric transportation, and intelligent loads is transforming conventional electricity networks into highly dynamic, decentralized, and cyber-physical infrastructures. In this evolving landscape, traditional power grids designed primarily for reliable electricity delivery are no longer sufficient to address increasing operational complexity, climate-related disruptions, cybersecurity threats, and the growing demand for system flexibility. This editorial argues that the future of electrical power systems depends on the convergence of autonomy and resilience, enabling power grids to anticipate disturbances, adapt to changing operating conditions, coordinate distributed energy resources, and recover rapidly from unexpected events. It discusses recent advances in artificial intelligence, self healing grid technologies, grid-forming power electronics, digital twins, edge intelligence, and cyber-physical security as key enablers of autonomous grid operation. The editorial further highlights emerging research challenges, including human–AI collaboration, AI-native power systems, multi-energy integration, and future regulatory frameworks. Ultimately, autonomous and resilient power grids are presented as the foundational infrastructure supporting a secure, sustainable, and fully electrified future while accelerating the global transition toward carbon-neutral energy systems.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 683-694
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Deep learning–driven automated prediction and data analysis of the Indian stock index

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp780-791
Vijaykumar Bidve , Ketki Kshirsagar , Jayashree Tamkhade , Sunil Sangve , Geetha R Chillarge , Aryani Gangadhara , Shailesh Kediya , Priyanka Paygude
This study focuses on the Indian stock index (NIFTY50), employing advanced deep learning methodologies to enhance predictive accuracy and support intelligent trading decisions. The research investigates the relationship between the volatility index (VIX) and NIFTY50, analyzing how fluctuations in VIX influence market direction and futures performance. By monitoring real-time variations in VIX during trading hours, the study aims to capture intraday volatility patterns and provide actionable insights for investors. To achieve this, the proposed framework leverages long short term memory (LSTM) networks, a sophisticated deep learning technique well-suited for sequential data analysis and financial forecasting. The methodology encompasses data collection, preprocessing, feature engineering, and the design of an LSTM-based predictive model, followed by rigorous evaluation and back-testing. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach in forecasting NIFTY50 movements, highlighting the potential of LSTM networks to outperform traditional statistical and machine learning models. The findings contribute to the growing body of research on AI-driven financial prediction, offering a paradigm shift in the application of deep learning for stock market analysis and paving the way for more reliable, automated decision-making in investment strategies.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 780-791
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Explainable hybrid machine learning for predicting student enrollment decisions in Indonesian private universities

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp880-897
Dybio Dompu Hot Asih , Alex Permatanta Karo-Karo , Erbin Sitorus
Student enrollment prediction is an important challenge for private universities because accurate predictions can support admission planning, marketing strategies, and institutional resource allocation. However, conventional prediction models may provide high predictive performance while offering limited insight into the factors underlying students’ enrollment decisions. This study proposes an explainable hybrid machine learning approach to predict student enrollment decisions in Indonesian private universities and to identify the factors that contribute most strongly to the prediction outcomes. The study uses student enrollment data collected from Universitas Wirahusada Medan and Universitas Audi Indonesia. The proposed approach combines feature selection and multiple machine learning algorithms to improve predictive performance, while explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) using Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) is employed to interpret the model predictions. The models are evaluated using accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, receiver operating characteristic - area under the curve (ROC-AUC), and confusion matrix analysis. The results show that the proposed hybrid approach provides competitive predictive performance compared with individual machine learning models. The SHAP analysis further reveals the relative contribution and direction of the most influential features in determining student enrollment decisions. These findings demonstrate that combining predictive modeling with explainability can provide not only accurate enrollment predictions but also actionable insights for university decision-makers. The study contributes an integrated approach for supporting data-driven student recruitment and enrollment management in Indonesian private higher education institutions.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 880-897
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Event-level illegal parking detection using YOLOv8 and SSD models

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp898-907
Prachi Sodegaonkar , Rahat A. Khan
Unauthorized parking in urban areas results in traffic congestion and leads to the inefficient use of road infrastructure. This study presents an event-level illegal parking detection framework that combines deep learning–based object detection with region-based temporal logic to distinguish transient stops from actual parking violations. A comparative analysis of YOLOv8s and single shot multibox detector (SSD) is conducted using real-world surveillance footage spanning high traffic density and poor lighting conditions. Unlike traditional approaches that rely on hardware-intensive multi-object tracking, our method utilizes a 30-second stationarity threshold within designated regions of interest (ROIs) to detect violations. Experimental results indicate that YOLOv8s outperforms SSD in enforcement reliability, achieving a Recall of 1.00 on a limited-scale evaluation set of 12 confirmed violation events and an F1-score of 0.89, compared with SSD’s Recall of 0.67 and F1-score of 0.77. Moreover, YOLOv8s achieves an inference speed of up to 97 frames per second (FPS), well beyond real-time requirements. These results indicate strong potential for real-time illegal parking detection under urban surveillance conditions.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 898-907
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Seamless UAV integration: a framework for network slicing as a service in 5G and beyond

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp749-761
Bouzid Tarek , Noureddine Chaib , Mohamed Lahcen Bensaad
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have demonstrated remarkable versatility across monitoring, delivery, and data collection applications. However, the growing complexity of network architectures with 5G and Beyond 5G (B5G) necessitates innovative solutions like network slicing, which faces challenges in radio access network (RAN) efficiency and optimization under higher frequencies. This paper introduces a novel framework for seamless UAV-assisted net work slicing as a service. By integrating UAVs directly into the network infrastructure, the framework enables on-demand delivery of tailored network slices to end users, addressing the limitations of traditional terrestrial approaches while enhancing efficiency and scalability. The proposed framework allows service providers and network administrators to deliver slices more effectively, while specifically tackling high-frequency RAN challenges by deploying UAVs as close-proximity relays to users. A key contribution is complete compatibility and interoperability with existing cellular infrastructure, ensuring seamless integration. The paper presents critical foundational concepts and a literature review, followed by the proposed framework’s architecture, layers, and methodology. Comprehensive tests and comparisons evaluate the framework’s performance, concluding with a discussion of applications and potential enhancements.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 749-761
Publish at: 2026-09-01

URL-based phishing detection using XGBoost with engineered features

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp908-927
Jawaher Alharbi , Manal Bayousef , Hind Almisbahi
URL-based phishing involves fake uniform resource locators (URLs) created by attackers to trick users into believing they are visiting a legitimate website and thereby steal their confidential information. While several powerful machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) studies exist to detect phishing, they still face limitations. Many studies rely on third-party intervention to extract features, which introduces delays that make them unsuitable for fast detection. Another limitation is that existing studies often use small datasets, and traditional features hinder models' ability to learn new phishing techniques, resulting in poor generalization. Therefore, developing new features is crucial to ensure that anti-phishing tools can keep pace with evolving phishing tactics. In addition, the existing studies do not report detection time, which is important for fast detection, and reduces methodological clarity. This paper aims to address these limitations by applying a neural network model and traditional ML classification algorithms to support browser-based phishing detection that balances high accuracy with fast detection. Our XGBoost model achieved 98% accuracy on the test set, utilizing 40 third-party-independent features. Additionally, we achieved an average response time of 0.026225 seconds and an average computation time of 1.6977×10⁻6 seconds per URL, which demonstrates competitive speed. We provided a table of features from recent studies, together with their documented sources, to support future research and analyze key URL-based features.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 908-927
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Fall detection system based on accelerometer/gyroscope data fusion

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp726-736
Amina Makhlouf , Isma Boudouane , Nadia Saadia , Amar Ramdane-Cherif
Falls are one of the major causes of death among the elderly worldwide. Faced with this public health challenge, many researchers have designed continuous monitoring systems to detect this type of incident at an earlier time, in order to facilitate immediate treatment and reduce potentially serious consequences. In this paper, we present a solution for the continuous monitoring of elderly or disabled people. We developed a fall detection system based on the fusion of data from a gyroscope and an accelerometer of a wearable inertial station. Two algorithms were developed: the first uses only the data from the gyroscope, while the second is based on the fusion of gyroscopic and accelerometric data. The evaluation of the system took into account several types of falls and activities, as well as different categories of people of different gender, age, height and weight, taken from the SISFALL database. The algorithm based on the gyroscope achieved an accuracy of 87.13% and a specificity of 84.27%, while its fusion with the accelerometer improved these performances to 90.76% and 89.92%, respectively, demonstrating the benefit of sensor fusion.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 726-736
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Low-cost BLDC drive with PBBO-tuned FOPID controller for enhanced speed regulation and torque ripple reduction

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp956-964
Pandi Maharajan M. , Rohini G. , Ravindran Ramkumar , Dharani Kumar Narne
Torque ripple (TR) minimization in brushless DC (BLDC) motors has become a critical research focus due to its direct impact on drive performance, efficiency, and reliability. Conventional BLDC drives typically employ large DC-link capacitors, which increase system cost and weight and are highly sensitive to operating temperature, thereby reducing lifetime. To address these limitations, this work proposes a low-cost capacitor-based BLDC drive integrated with a torque ripple compensation (TRC) technique and optimized control using the probabilistic biogeography-based optimization (PBBO) algorithm. The PBBO method is employed to tune the parameters of a fractional-order proportional-integral-derivative (FOPID) controller, ensuring effective speed regulation and TR reduction. By probabilistically refining migration and emigration rates, PBBO enhances convergence and eliminates redundant species movements, leading to superior controller parameter optimization. Simulation studies validate the proposed PBBO-FOPID approach, demonstrating significant improvements in TR reduction and speed control compared to conventional controllers such as DGOA-FOPID and spider web-based controller (SWC). Results confirm that the PBBO-FOPID controller achieves smoother torque response, reduced ripple, and enhanced speed regulation, establishing it as a cost effective and high-performance solution for BLDC motor drives.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 956-964
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Hybrid deep neural network framework for scalable and robust cardiovascular disorder prediction

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp940-946
Venkata Krishna Gandikota , Ponnam Lalitha , Ashok Reddy Kandula , Raghavamsi Davuluri , R. Kanchana , Vishnupriya Borra
Cardiovascular disorders remain the leading cause of global mortality, underscoring the urgent need for accurate and early prediction systems that can support timely medical intervention. Traditional diagnostic methods, while valuable, are often limited by subjectivity, time constraints, and the inability to fully capture complex patient data. To address these challenges, this study proposes a hybrid deep neural network (HDNN) framework that integrates convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and long short-term memory (LSTM) networks, supplemented with dense layers, to enhance predictive accuracy and robustness. The hybrid architecture leverages CNNs’ ability to extract spatial features and LSTMs’ strength in modeling temporal dependencies, thereby providing a comprehensive analysis of structured and unstructured patient data, including clinical records and health metrics. Rigorous preprocessing, feature selection, and domain specific knowledge integration further improve model performance compared to conventional machine learning (ML) approaches. Experimental evaluation on benchmark datasets, including the cleveland heart disease (HD) dataset and a combined multi-source dataset, demonstrated superior results, achieving accuracies of 98.86% and 97.52%, respectively. These findings highlight the potential of the HDNN framework to serve as a scalable, reliable, and clinically relevant tool, assisting healthcare professionals in early diagnosis, preventive care, and improved patient management.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 940-946
Publish at: 2026-09-01

Inventory model with trade credit policy and carbon emission preservation technology

10.11591/ijeecs.v43.i3.pp824-833
Deep Kamal Sharma , Ompal Singh
This study develops an integrated inventory model that incorporates preservation technology, trade credit policy, inflation effects, and carbon emission tax considerations to optimize supply chain performance. Preservation technology is introduced to reduce product deterioration, thereby extending shelf life and improving consumption efficiency, while trade credit policies provide financial flexibility for retailers. The model reflects the growing influence of regulatory frameworks and technological advancements on inventory management, highlighting how these factors shape future commercial applications. By combining financial mechanisms with sustainability measures, the proposed framework offers a holistic approach to inventory control. The model is formulated mathematically and solved using MAPLE software, enabling precise evaluation of inventory costs under varying cycle lengths. Numerical examples validate the model’s applicability, demonstrating significant reductions in overall supply chain costs when preservation and credit policies are effectively integrated. Sensitivity analysis further explores the impact of key parameters-including deterioration rate, inflation, preservation cost, and carbon emission taxes-providing managerial insights into their role in inventory decisions. The findings confirm that integrating sustainability measures with financial and operational policies enhances cost efficiency, supports environmental responsibility, and strengthens supply chain resilience in modern business contexts.
Volume: 43
Issue: 3
Page: 824-833
Publish at: 2026-09-01
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