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Applications of artificial intelligence in analyzing Aquilaria essential oils: a review of current machine learning techniques

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1087-1096
Noor Aida Syakira Ahmad Sabri , Nur Athirah Syafiqah Noramli , Muhammad Ikhsan Roslan , Nurlaila Ismail , Zakiah Mohd Yusoff , Ali Abd Almisreb , Mohd Nasir Taib
This study explores the application of machine learning (ML) techniques in the classification of agarwood oil, focusing on the use of various algorithms such as k-nearest neighbors (KNN), support vector machines (SVM), random forest (RF), and artificial neural networks (ANN). Since 2013, ML has played a pivotal role in analyzing agarwood oil, particularly by leveraging data from a variety of chemical compounds found in the Aquilaria genus. Through a systematic review and bibliometric analysis using the SCOPUS database, this study compiles and highlights recent works that have successfully employed ML techniques for the quality assessment of agarwood oil. These studies utilize chemical data, such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), for the classification and detection of different oil grades. The review reveals a broad range of ML applications, demonstrating their growing importance in the field of essential oil analysis. By systematically presenting the findings from recent research, this work emphasizes the potential for further exploration of ML in the standardization and improvement of agarwood oil classification techniques.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1087-1096
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Enhancing imbalanced dataset diagnosis using class-based input image composition

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1613-1622
Azzeddine Hlali , Majid Ben Yakhlef , Soulaiman El Hazzat
Deep learning models often falter when faced with small, imbalanced datasets or degraded image quality, leading to unacceptably high false prediction rates. To bridge this gap, we introduce class-based image composition. This technique reformulates training inputs by fusing multiple intra-class images into unique composite input images (CoImg). By concentrating information density and amplifying intra-class variance, CoImg forces the model to discern subtle, nuanced disease patterns that might otherwise be lost. We validated this approach using the optical coherence tomography dataset for image-based deep learning methods (OCTDL), a collection of seven imbalanced retinal disease scan categories. From this, we engineered Co-OCTDL: a perfectly balanced variant where each training sample exists as a 3×1 layout composite. To measure the impact of this new representation, we benchmarked the original dataset against its composite counterpart using a VGG16 architecture. Precision was paramount. We maintained identical hyperparameters and model structures across all experiments to ensure a rigorous, fair comparison. The results were transformative. While baseline datasets struggled, the enhanced Co OCTDL achieved a near-perfect F1-score of 0.995 and an AUC of 0.9996. The method effectively neutralized the risks of class imbalance. It didn't just improve the numbers; it refined the diagnostic reliability of the model.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1613-1622
Publish at: 2026-04-01

A reinforcement-guided multi-phase hybrid architecture for threat profiling and defense towards IoT handheld device

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1497-1504
Pushpa Rajput Narayana Singh , Neelambike Siddalingaiah
The contribution of artificial intelligence (AI) towards offering proactive security in handheld devices of internet of things (IoT) is in evolving stage. Review of literature showcases noteworthy attempts of machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) models; however, they are a large scope of improvement towards bridging the trade-off between security and computational-communication efficiency. This problem is addressed in this manuscript by presenting a unique and innovative solution where reinforcement learning (RL) has been hybridized with standalone ML and DL models. The model reads the permission-based data in cloud, followed by vulnerability prediction carried out by hybridization of RL and logistic regression (LR). Further, RL is integrated with deep neural network (DNN) for exploring a secure path to facilitate data transmission. The proposed model witnessed 97.9% accuracy, 67.35% of higher accuracy, 55.14% of reduced latency, and 52.54% of faster response time in contrast to baselines.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1497-1504
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Deep neural network classification in chatbot system family health counseling services

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1211-1218
Andi Riansyah , Sam Farisa Chaerul Haviana , Ratna Supradewi , Muhammad Ainul Wahib
Mental health problems affect many aspects of life, including physical well being, work productivity, social functioning, and suicide risk. In Indonesia, access to professional mental health services remains very limited: only a small proportion of people with depression receive treatment and the number of mental health professionals per population is far below international recommendations, creating an urgent service gap. This study proposes an artificial intelligence–based chatbot to support family mental health counseling services in Indonesia. The chatbot uses a deep neural network (DNN) to classify user questions into counseling intent categories and to provide appropriate responses. Psychologists compiled and verified a dataset of Indonesian counseling questions and responses, which was then pre processed using standard text processing techniques and encoded with a bag of words (BoW) representation. A fully connected DNN with one input layer, two hidden layers of eight neurons each, and a SoftMax output layer was trained using the Adam optimizer (learning rate 0.01) on 80% of the data and evaluated on the remaining 20%. The best configuration achieved a training accuracy of 96%, with test results of 93% accuracy, 92% precision, 93% recall, and 92% F1-score. These findings indicate that proposed DNN based chatbot can accurately classify counseling intents and generate contextually appropriate responses, suggesting its potential as complementary tool to support initial family mental health counseling in Indonesia.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1211-1218
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Unified voting-based ensemble learning for rice leaf disease detection using improved pretrained models

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1646-1663
Govindarajan Subburaman , Mary Vennila Selvadurai
As a staple food for a large portion of the global population, rice is particularly susceptible to leaf diseases that adversely affect its yield and overall quality. This study utilizes four pretrained convolutional neural network (CNN) models to construct a unified voting-based ensemble approach for rice leaf disease classification. The models include VGG16, DenseNet121, InceptionV3, and Xception. The dataset used in this study was collected from Kaggle and further enriched with images obtained from Google sources. It comprises a total of 4,000 images categorized into six classes: bacterial leaf blight, brown spot, leaf blast, leaf scald, narrow brown spot, and healthy leaves. It was split into training (327 images/class), validation (140 images/class), and testing (200 images/class). Images were normalized to [0,1] and augmented through rotation, flipping, shifting, shear, zoom, brightness, and channel adjustments to improve generalization. Individually, the fine-tuned models achieved accuracies of 91.3% (VGG16), 95.6% (DenseNet121), 92.1% (InceptionV3), and 89.8% (Xception). The ensemble leveraged majority voting (93.6%), weighted voting (96.5%), and soft voting (97%), yielding an absolute gain of 1.4% over the best individual model and 4.8% over the average of all models. To our knowledge, this is the first ensemble combining these four architectures with unified voting for identifying diseases in rice leaves, delivering a scalable and computationally efficient solution suitable in advance diagnosis and timely execution in agricultural settings with limited resources.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1646-1663
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Automated classification of apple bruises from hyperspectral images: an approach for fruit quality assessment

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1381-1389
Peddireddy Venkateswara Reddy , Alaguchamy Parivazhagan
Apple bruise detection plays a crucial role in post-harvest quality control; however, conventional manual inspection remains labor-intensive, subjective, and unsuitable for large-scale industrial deployment. This study proposes an automated classification framework for identifying bruised regions in apples using hyperspectral imaging combined with deep learning and adaptive optimization techniques. The proposed model integrates a long short-term memory (LSTM) network optimized using an adaptive sand cat swarm optimization (ASCSO) algorithm, along with a ResNet-50 feature extraction backbone. The adaptive behavior embedded within ASCSO dynamically adjusts the optimization parameters to enhance convergence and prevent premature stagnation during LSTM hyperparameter tuning. Hyperspectral images were processed to extract relevant spectral–spatial features, which were subsequently fed into the optimized classifier. Experimental evaluations demonstrate that the proposed hybrid model significantly outperforms conventional and baseline deep learning approaches, achieving a classification accuracy of 98.0% while maintaining robustness across varying bruise patterns and intensity levels. The results highlight the effectiveness of combining hyperspectral imaging with adaptive deep learning optimization for high-precision fruit quality assessment. This research contributes a reliable, scalable solution for automated bruise detection and quality grading in the fruit supply chain, offering strong potential to reduce post-harvest losses and improve operational efficiency in the agro-food industry.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1381-1389
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Hybrid machine learning for imbalanced lettuce disease classification

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1783-1789
Fazlur Ihzanurahman , Wayan Firdaus Mahmudy
This study investigates a hybrid machine learning framework combining EfficientNet-B3 feature extraction with classical classifiers for lettuce disease classification under conditions of extreme class imbalance. The system utilizes EfficientNet-B3 to extract high-dimensional feature embeddings from 2,337 images, which are subsequently classified using support vector machine (SVM), random forest (RF), and k-nearest neighbors (KNN). Although the proposed SVM-based model achieves a high overall accuracy of 94.01%, experimental results reveal a substantial performance discrepancy compared to the macro F1-score of 37.94%. This critical gap indicates that while the model successfully identifies the majority classes, it fails to recognize rare disease categories with limited samples. Theoretical analysis suggests that while SVM handles high-dimensional feature spaces more effectively than RF and KNN, the deep features extracted are biased toward majority class characteristics. These findings highlight the severe limitations of accuracy-centric evaluation in agricultural diagnostics and demonstrate that deep feature extraction alone is insufficient to guarantee robust detection for minority pathologies. The study concludes that relying on aggregate accuracy can mask diagnostic failures, emphasizing the urgent need for per-class performance analysis and data-level mitigation strategies in future research.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1783-1789
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Explainable social media disaster image classification using a lightweight attention-based deep learning approach

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1464-1472
Rashmi Kangokar Taranath , Geeta Chidanandappa Mara
In recent years, the rapid dissemination of social media content during natural and man-made disasters has created a need for automated and accurate disaster image classification systems. This paper proposes lightweight explainable attention-based disaster network (LEAD-Net), a deep learning (DL) model designed for classifying disaster-related images with high accuracy and interpretability. The system integrates an EfficientNet-B0 backbone enhanced with squeeze-and-excitation (SE) attention modules and a lightweight neural architecture search (NAS-lite) strategy for tuning the classifier head and training hyperparameters. The model was evaluated on two benchmark datasets comprehensive disaster dataset (CDD) and damage multimodal dataset (DMD) achieving 96% and 87% accuracy, respectively, outperforming several established convolutional neural network (CNN) baselines. To ensure transparency, gradient-weighted class activation mapping (Grad-CAM) was employed to generate visual explanations of the model’s decisions, confirming its focus on semantically relevant image regions.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1464-1472
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Technical analysis model for stock prediction using a grammatical evolution algorithm

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1236-1246
Aditya Kusuma Setyanegara , Imas Sukaesih Sitanggang , Mushthofa Mushthofa
Stocks are a popular investment instrument but carry high risks, where investors may incur losses when stocks are bought at high prices and sold at lower prices. Technical analysis is used to study past stock price behavior to predict future prices. In this study, grammatical evolution (GE) is applied as an evolutionary computing technique to discover optimal functions or programs that represent historical stock price data. This study develops GE based prediction models by utilizing objective functions and search spaces defined through grammar. The model integrates technical indicators based on complex statistical models such as autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA), prophet, exponential smoothing, and Fibonacci retracements. Furthermore, this study employs GE to generate ensemble weights randomly, ensuring each model contributes equitably to the final prediction formula. Experiments were conducted using multiple stock datasets, including SMAR, S&P 500, the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE), the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE), and Adani Enterprises (ADANIENT), to evaluate the model’s adaptability and generalization capability. The results demonstrate that the proposed GE model effectively captures complex market patterns and produces more reliable stock price predictions compared to deep learning-based approaches. Although GE requires greater computational time, the findings suggest that GE provides a flexible and effective framework for constructing hybrid stock price forecasting models in dynamic market environments.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1236-1246
Publish at: 2026-04-01

TMA-Net: a transformer-based multi-modal attention network for abnormal behavior detection

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1441-1450
Huong-Giang Doan , Ngoc-Trung Nguyen
Abnormal behavior detection in crowded environments remains challenging due to complex motion patterns, occlusions, and domain variability. This paper presents transformer-based multi-modal attention network (TMA-Net), a unified framework that integrates red, green, and blue (RGB), optical flow (OF), and heat map (HM) modalities through a dual-stage attention fusion mechanism. The system employs you only look once version 11 (YOLOv11) for human localization and vision transformer (ViT)-B/16 for feature encoding, followed by intra-modal self-attention and cross-modal fusion to capture fine-grained spatial–temporal and motion energy dependencies. Extensive experiments on six public benchmarks as UMN, Crowd-11, UBNormal, ShanghaiTech, CUHK Avenue, UCSD Ped2, and EPUAbN dataset, demonstrate that TMA-Net achieves up to 97.5% area under the curve (AUC) and 96–100% accuracy, outperforming previous other state-of-the-art approaches. These results highlight the framework’s strong generalization and robustness across both single- and cross-dataset evaluations, underscoring its potential for reliable deployment in real intelligent surveillance systems.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1441-1450
Publish at: 2026-04-01

2D-CNN-GACL-ECGNet graph attention: a robust framework for electrocardiogram-based stress detection

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1529-1538
P. Kavitha , L. Shakkeera
Early detection of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) via electrocardiogram (ECG) classification during physiological stress is critical and remains challenging due to stress-induced morphological variability, noise from ambulatory settings, and inter-class ambiguities. Existing models, such as 1D signal-based models with convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and graph convolutional networks (GCNs), struggle to adapt to dynamic stress conditions and generate interpretable insights. In response, we propose 2D CNN and graph attention network (GAT) for optimizer. The model 2D-CNN and GACL-ECG-Net, an innovative framework integrating GATs with adaptive contrastive learning (ACL) and morpho-temporal graph construction. Key innovations include 2D-CNN denoising, 2D transformation, dynamic morpho-temporal graphs modeling ECG beats as nodes with hybrid edges (70% morphological similarity, 30% temporal proximity), and stress-adaptive contrastive loss with learnable margins on stress-conditioned labels, reducing class ambiguity by 18%. Multi-head attention mechanisms provide interpretable heatmaps aligned with cardiologist annotations (κ =0.82) and are evaluated using Massachusetts Institute of Technology-Beth Israel Hospital (MIT-BIH) arrhythmia database, wearable stress and affect detection (WESAD) dataset for emotional stress, and stress at work, knowledge work (SWELL-KW) dataset for cognitive stress. 2D-CNN-GACL-ECG-Net achieves state-of-the-art performance with 98.7% F1-score (MIT-BIH), 94.2% (WESAD), and 92.8% (SWELL-KW), outperforming CNN-bidirectional long short-term memory (BiLSTM) and GCN baselines by 95%. The framework is computationally efficient and clinically validated for wearable health monitoring.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1529-1538
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Exponential long short-term memory with Levy flight optimization for lung nodule classification

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1451-1463
Kaliba Gowthami , Kamalakannan Jayaseelan
Lung cancer, which commonly appears as lung nodules is a deadly type of cancer that develops in a lung. Early detection of lung cancer is critical and challenging task due to presence of overlapping structures, which make it challenging to differentiate the benign and malignant regions. This research proposes long short-term memory (LSTM) with exponential linear unit (ELU) method for the classification of different classes of lung nodules. The hyperparameters of the LSTM network are optimized using the developed dynamic Levy flight – Archimedes optimization algorithm (DLF-AOA), which effectively identifies the optimal parameters for classification. The ResNet-18 method is used for the extraction of high-level features to differentiate various classes of lung nodules. Furthermore, Bayesian active contour (BAC) is employed for the segmentation of images as containing cancerous and non-cancerous regions of lung nodules. The LSTM with ELU method achieves 98.56% accuracy, 97.54% sensitivity, 98.22% specificity, 96.93% precision, 96.33% F1-score, and 1.44 error rate in IQ-OTH/NCCD lung cancer dataset.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1451-1463
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Usability analysis of the individual creativity assessment tool using the adjusted system usability scale

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1955-1962
Mohamad Rahimi Mohamad Rosman , Noor Arina Md Arifin , Siti Aishah Mokhtar , Nur Ainatul Mardiah Mat Nawi , Huda Hamidon , Salliza Md Radzi
Creativity is a critical element in the learning environment, which leads to innovation and research advancement in higher education. However, assessing creativity is challenging due to its diverse nature and the lack of standardized tools. The existing assessment tools often overlook the critical role of organizational culture in shaping individual creativity within academic settings. To address this gap, the individual creativity assessment tool (i-CAT) was developed based on the framework of organizational culture to assess its contribution to creativity among Malaysian academicians. This study aimed to i) assess the usability of i-CAT and ii) determine the significant effect of demographic factors on its usability assessment. A quantitative methodology, utilizing expert sampling and the system usability scale (SUS), was employed as the primary evaluation method. 20 experts with relevant professional and academic experience were selected for the validation. The results showed excellent usability, with 95% of experts rating the information system as functionally acceptable. A one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) found no significant difference in usability based on profession or education levels, but a significant difference was observed for experience levels. These findings confirm that i-CAT is a functional, user-friendly, and culturally relevant tool for creativity assessment within Malaysia’s higher education institutions.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1955-1962
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Taxonomy of cooperative adaptation level for cooperative adaptive mobile applications

10.12928/telkomnika.v24i2.27542
Berhanyikun Amanuel; Addis Ababa University Gebreselassie , Nuno M.; University of Lisbon Garcia , Dida; Addis Ababa University Midekso
Adaptive mobile applications (AMAs) are software systems designed to dynamically adjust their behavior in response to contextual changes. When multiple AMAs coexist on the same device, they create an ecosystem of heterogeneous applications with distinct functionalities, interaction models, and sensor requirements. This diversity enables opportunities for cooperative adaptation, where applications synchronize their behavior for collective benefit. Building on prior work that identified cooperation as a key dimension of adaptive mobile systems, this study proposes a refined taxonomy of cooperation levels for AMAs. The taxonomy is validated through case studies and formal specification methods, demonstrating its theoretical soundness and practical applicability. The findings advance the understanding of cooperative adaptation mechanisms and provide structured guidance for designing and classifying cooperative AMAs.
Volume: 24
Issue: 2
Page: 500-513
Publish at: 2026-04-01

Recognition system based on artificial vision using OpenCV for discarding and detecting ceramics with defects

10.11591/ijai.v15.i2.pp1166-1173
Fernando Alvarado , Ricardo Yauri
Early detection of defects through preventive maintenance is important in industry to avoid economic losses, as in the case of ceramic tile manufacturing, where manual inspection allows defective parts to advance in production, causing delays. The research review shows that computer vision enables the automation of object detection, classification, and elimination tasks in industrial processes, using solutions based on Python, OpenCV, and MATLAB. For this reason, the design of a computer vision recognition system with OpenCV is proposed, which allows automatic discarding of ceramics with defects using an algorithm for detecting ceramics with a camera and Arduino-based hardware, comparing the captured images with a standard image on a conveyor belt. The machine vision system was integrated with a camera connected to a computer running OpenCV, achieving effective automatic detection with a threshold of 25% difference from the standard part. This percentage was calculated by comparing the grayscale pixel values with a reference image. The system calculates the proportion of pixels that exceed the similarity threshold. The conclusion is that the developed system contributes to production, highlighting the possibility of future industrial integration.
Volume: 15
Issue: 2
Page: 1166-1173
Publish at: 2026-04-01
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